Removal of persistent organic pollutants in fish oils using short-path distillation with a working fluid

Cleaner lipid processing: Supercritical carbon dioxide (Sc-CO2) and short path distillation

Today, regulations and consumer awareness demand production technologies with minimum impact on the environment and maximum utilization of available resources. In the field of lipids, two well-known technologies for avoiding the use of organic solvents and chemicals stand out: supercritical (Sc) fluids and short path distillation (SPD). To date, both technologies involve high operating costs that have limited their application to selected high value-added products which are high temperature sensitive. However, improvements in process control and materials make further implementation of these techniques possible. In this chapter, an integrative review has been carried out with the aim of compiling the literature on the application of these technologies to lipid extraction, micronization and fractionation of liquid mixtures. Special attention has been paid to the separation of compounds by both technologies: deacidification, partial purification of acylglycerol compounds, isolation of unsaponifiable compounds and separation of toxic and polluting compounds.

Environmental impacts of hazardous waste, and management strategies to reconcile circular economy and eco-sustainability

The rise in living standards and the continuous development in the global economy led to the depletion of resources and increased waste generation per capita. This waste might posture a significant threat to human health or the environmental matrices (water, air, soil) when inadequately treated, transported, stored, or managed/disposed of. Therefore, effective waste management in an economically viable and environmentally friendly way has become meaningful. Prominent technology is the need of the day for circular economy and sustainable development to reduce the speed of depletion in resources and produce an alternative means for the future demands in the different sectors of science and technology. In order to meet the potential requirements for energy production or producing secondary raw material, solid waste may be the prime source. The activities of living organisms convert waste products in one form or another in which electronic waste (e-waste) is a modern-day problem that is growing by leaps and bounds. The disposal protocols of the e-waste management need to be given proper attention to avoid its hazardous impacts. The e-waste is obtained from any equipment or devices that run by electricity or batteries like laptops, palmtops, computers, televisions, mobile phones, digital video discs (DVD), and many more. E-waste is one of the rapidly growing causes of world pollution today. Plenty of research is available in the scientific literature, which shows different approaches being set up and followed to manage and dispose of waste products. These strategies to manage waste products designed by the states all over the globe revolves around minimal production, authentic techniques for the management of waste produced, reuse and recycling, etc. The virtual survey of the available literature on waste management shows that it lacks specificity regarding the management of waste products parallel to ecological sustainability. The presented review covers the sources, potential environmental impacts, and highlights the importance of waste management strategies to provide the latest and updated knowledge. The review also put forward the countermeasures that need to be taken on national and International levels addressing the sensitive issue of waste management.

Occurrence of Mineral Oil Hydrocarbons in Omega-3 Fatty Acid Dietary Supplements

Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements have become increasingly popular with consumers due to their multiple health benefits. In this study, the presence of mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOH) was investigated in seventeen commercial samples of such supplements, characterized by different formulations. The analyses were performed using on-line liquid chromatography–gas chromatography (with flame ionization detection), which is considered the most efficient method for the determination of MOH in foodstuffs. Analyte transfer was performed by using the retention gap technique, with partially concurrent solvent evaporation. Various degrees of mineral oil saturated hydrocarbon contamination (from 2.4 ppm to 375.7 ppm) were found, with an average value of 49.9 ppm. Different C-number range contaminations were determined, with the >C₂₅–≤C₃₅ range always found with an average value of 26.9 ppm. All samples resulted free of mineral oil aromatic hydrocarbons, except for two samples in which a contamination was found at the 9.9 and 6.6 ppm levels, respectively.

Quality of Fish-Oil-Based Dietary Supplements Available on the Italian Market: A Preliminary Study

The global market of food supplements is growing rapidly with a large turnover. Fish oil supplements represent a significant part of this turnover as they are believed to have important health benefits. Conversely, there are few papers in the literature about the quality control of fish oil capsules. As prior studies illustrate, a perfect agreement with the label is rarely found, and in some isolated cases, large amounts of soybean oil are also detected, indicating a true adulteration rather than a non-compliance with the label. None of the available studies refer to the Italian market, which ranks first in Europe in the consumption of food supplements. In this present communication, a quality control of fish-oil-based supplements from the Italian market was carried out for the first time. With minor deviations, all results showed substantial agreement with the label. However, the most important conclusion from this research is that compliance with the label is not enough to judge a product of good quality. The analysis of the overall fatty acid composition showed that some supplements have a high level of saturated fatty acids, and therefore they did not undergo a proper purification process. This may represent a safety issue since the purification process also allows the removal of toxic contaminants.

Reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in olive pomace oil using short-path molecular distillation

Bleached olive pomace oil (BOPO) was distilled using a short-path molecular distillation unit to determine the impacts of distillation conditions on the removal of 15 PAHs from the list of 16 EPA-priority pollutant PAHs. The removal of PAHs was achieved at elevated temperatures (110-230°C) and pressures (0.05, 0.5, 5 mbar). The oil was also deodorised at 230°C under 0.5, 1 and 5 mbar pressures to determine the effect of pressure during deodorisation on the removal of PAHs. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) was used for quantifying PAH concentrations in oil samples. PAH concentrations in BOPO were considerably reduced after molecular distillation and both temperature increment and pressure decrease were effective for the removal of PAHs from olive pomace oil. When above 190°C, BaP could be reduced to <2 µg/kg at all pressures. Distillation at 230°C under 0.05 mbar absolute pressure reduced the sum of four PAHs (BaP, Chr, BaA, BbF) to 7 µg/kg, which meets the acceptable levels established by the European Union (10 µg/kg). Deodorisation effectiveness was increased by decreasing absolute pressure, particularly for light PAHs.

PBDEs in cod (Gadus morhua) liver products (1972-2017): Occurrence and human exposure

PBDEs occur in a range of commonly consumed foods but there is very little current information on occurrence in dietary supplements such as cod liver oil or cod livers used as food. This study retrospectively investigated a number of these products, sourced from the Baltic Sea and North Atlantic, historically dating from 1972 to 2017. For the sum of 17 measured PBDEs (ΣPBDE), the concentrations ranged from 9.9 to 415 ng g^-1 for the oils and from 10.5 to 13 ng g^-1 for canned liver products. Concentrations in the oils were highest during the period from 1993 to 2001. For all samples, BDE-47 was the dominant congener with a maximum detected concentration of 308 ng g^-1 in a Baltic cod liver oil from 1993. Human exposure to PBDEs from recommended doses were estimated for adults, teenagers and children. Depending on the age group, BDE-47 intakes ranged from 1.3 to 211.5 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 (Baltic Sea), 2.9-12.7 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 (Atlantic, Norway) and 1.1-4.8 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 (Atlantic, Iceland). Intakes for the other dominant congeners, BDE-49, BDE-99 and BDE-100, were relatively low. The intake estimates of ΣPBDE were highest for Baltic cod liver oils ranging from 2.2 to 284.8 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 for adults, 2.8-178 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 for teenagers and 2.0-127.8 ng kg^-1 bm day^-1 for a child. Estimated weekly intake of ΣPBDE from canned cod liver was highest for adults, ranging from 17.6 to 25.1 ng kg^-1 bm.

Utilization of molecular distillation for determining the effects of some minor compounds on the quality and frying stability of olive pomace oil

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of some minor components such as squalene and mono- and diglycerides (MDG) on the frying stability of olive pomace oil. Refined olive pomace oil was distilled using a falling film type short-path distillation unit at 230 °C under a pressure of 0.02 mbar to remove minor components. Distilled olive pomace oil was introduced with approximately 10,000 mg/kg of squalene and 2.5% of MDG. Fryings were performed 8 times/day at 180 °C for 3 min. Whole frying procedure proceeded for 5 days. Total polar compounds, polymerized triglycerides (PTG), free fatty acids, viscosity, color index, p-anisidine value, smoke point, fatty acid composition and iodine values of the oils were monitored. Results indicated that all criteria except smoke point and iodine value increased in all fractions during fryings. The lowest total polar compound was obtained in distilled olive pomace oil while PTG was the lowest in the MDG added fraction. Lower increases in viscosity and color indexes were recorded in squalene incorporated samples. It was observed that squalene and MDG were not effective on the oxidation rate of unsaturated fatty acids during frying.

Modelling scenarios on feed-to-fillet transfer of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in future feeds to farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The salmon feed composition has changed the last decade with a replacement of traditionally use of fish oil and fishmeal diets with vegetable ingredients and the use decontaminated fish oils, causing reduced concentrations of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in farmed Norwegian Atlantic salmon. The development of novel salmon feeds has prompted the need for prediction on dioxins and dl-PCB concentrations in future farmed salmon. Prediction on fillet dioxins and dl-PCB concentrations from different feed composition scenarios are made using a simple one-compartmental transfer model based on earlier established dioxin and dl-PCB congener specific uptake and elimination kinetics rates. The model is validated with two independent feeding trials, with a significant linear correlation (r(2) = 0.96, y = 1.0x, p < 0.0001, n = 116) between observed and predicted values. Model fillet predictions are made for the following four scenarios; (1) general feed composition of 1999, (2) feed composition of 2013, (3) future feed composition with high fish oil and meal replacement, (4) future feed composition with high fish oil and meal replacement and decontaminated fish oil. Model predictions of fillet dioxin and dl-PCB concentrations from 1999 (1.05 ng WHO2005-TEQs kg(-1)ww) and 2013 (0.57 ng WHO2005-TEQs kg(-1)ww) are in line with the data observed in national surveillance programs of those years (1.1 and 0.52 ng WHO2005-TEQs kg(-1)ww, respectively). Future use of high replacement and decontaminated oils feeds gave predicted fillet concentrations of 0.27 ng WHO2005-TEQs kg(-1)ww, which is near the limit of quantification.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and dioxin-like PCBs in commercialized food products from Colombia

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) are commonly known as dioxins and are the most toxic members of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) because present a variety of health effects especially as promoting agent of growing and transformation of cancer cells. They are bio-accumulate in humans primarily via the diet, specifically by ingestion of foods that have high lipid content which are generally associated with foods of animal origin such as oils and fats and with fishery and dairy products. In Colombia the Ministry of Health and Social Protection which is the entity responsible for surveillance food conditions, has established maximum levels for dioxins and dl-PCBs in oils from animal and vegetable origins. Oils of vegetable and animal origin represent an appreciable intake in the country thus the presence of dioxins and dl-PCBs in these materials is a matter of concern because they can bioaccumulate in fat. In this contribution the levels of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in olive, soybean, fish oil, butter and shrimp consumed in Colombia were determined using HRGC-HRMS and were compared with the maximum levels permitted in oil samples according to both the Colombian and European regulations. WHO-TEQ concentrations for PCDD/Fs and dioxin like PCBs ranged from 0.24 to 1.710pgWHO-TEQ PCDD/Fg(-1) of fat and from 0.050 to 3.000pgWHO-TEQ PCBg(-1) of fat, respectively. As expected, fish oils and shrimp present the highest WHO-TEQ PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs values followed by butter and soybean oil sample, while the olive oil shows the lowest levels. In general, the vegetable oils show levels below the limits established by both the Colombian and European regulations. The levels from soybean oil found in this study were slightly higher than the threshold established both by the Commission Regulation European Union (EU) and the Colombian legislation, while fish oils showed concentrations above the European regulations. Furthermore, shrimp exhibited values below the maximum concentration levels established by the EU and Colombian regulation.

An overview of detection techniques for monitoring dioxin-like compounds: latest technique trends and their applications

Dioxin-like compounds (DLCs) are considered as persistent bioaccumulative toxicants with a number of continuing issues in the fields of ecotoxicology and bioassay.

Dioxin risk assessment: mechanisms of action and possible toxicity in human health

Dioxin-like compounds (DLCs) have been classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most persistent toxic chemical substances in the environment, and they are associated with several occupational activities and industrial accidents around the world. Since the end of the 1970s, these toxic chemicals have been banned because of their human toxicity potential, long half-life, wide dispersion, and they bioaccumulate in the food web. This review serves as a primer for environmental health professionals to provide guidance on short-term risk assessment of dioxin and to identify key findings for health and exposure assessment based on policies of different agencies. It also presents possible health effects of dioxins, mechanisms of action, toxic equivalency factors (TEFs), and dose-response characterization. Key studies related to toxicity values of dioxin-like compounds and their possible human health risk were identified through PubMed and supplemented with relevant studies characterized by reviewing the reference lists in the review articles and primary literature. Existing data decreases the scope of analyses and models in relevant studies to a manageable size by focusing on the set of important studies related to the perspective of developing toxicity values of DLCs.

Integrated ecological risk assessment of dioxin compounds

Current ecological risk assessment (ERA) schemes focus mainly on bioaccumulation and toxicity of pollutants in individual organisms. Ecological models are tools mainly used to assess ecological risks of pollutants to ecosystems, communities, and populations. Their main advantage is the relatively direct integration of the species sensitivity to organic pollutants, the fate and mechanism of action in the environment of toxicants, and life-history features of the individual organism of concern. To promote scientific consensus on ERA schemes, this review is intended to provide a guideline on short-term ERA involving dioxin chemicals and to identify key findings for exposure assessment based on policies of different agencies. It also presents possible adverse effects of dioxins on ecosystems, toxicity equivalence methodology, environmental fate and transport modeling, and development of stressor-response profiles for dioxin-like chemicals.

Purification of Alaskan walleye pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus) and New Zealand hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) liver oil using short path distillation

The beneficial health effects of a diet rich in n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) have been extensively researched in recent years. Marine oils are an important dietary source of n-3 LC-PUFA, being especially rich in two of the most important fatty acids of this class, EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid; 22:6n-3). Oils rich in n-3 LC-PUFA are prone to oxidation that leads to loss of product quality. Alaskan pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas, 1814) and New Zealand’s hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae Hector, 1871) are the highest volume fisheries of their respective countries. Both produce large quantities of fishery byproducts, in particular crude or unrefined n-3 LC-PUFA containing oils. Presently these oils are used as ingredients for animal feed, and only limited quantities are used as human nutritional products. The aim of this research was to investigate the applicability of short path distillation for the purification of pollock and hoki oil to produce purified human-grade fish oil to meet quality specifications. Pollock and hoki oils were subjected to short path distillation and a significant decrease in free fatty acids and lipid oxidation (peroxide and para-anisidine values) products was observed. Purified oils met the Global Organization for EPA and DHA Omega-3 (GOED) standard for edible fish oils.