Identification and dose dependency of ibuprofen biliary metabolites in rainbow trout

Review: Fish bile, a highly versatile biomarker for different environmental pollutants

Ecotoxicological assessments encompass a broad spectrum of biochemical endpoints and ecological factors, allowing for comprehensive assessments concerning pollutant exposure levels and their effects on both fish populations and surrounding ecosystems. While these evaluations offer invaluable insights into the overall health and dynamics of aquatic environments, they often provide an integrated perspective, making it challenging to pinpoint the precise sources and individual-level responses to environmental contaminants. In contrast, biliary pollutant excretion assessments represent a focused approach aimed at understanding how fish at the individual level respond to environmental stressors. In this sense, the analysis of pollutant profiles in fish bile not only serves as a valuable exposure indicator, but also provides critical information concerning the uptake, metabolism, and elimination of specific contaminants. Therefore, by investigating unique and dynamic fish responses to various pollutants, biliary assessments can contribute significantly to the refinement of ecotoxicological studies. This review aims to discuss the multifaceted utility of bile as a potent biomarker for various environmental pollutants in fish in targeted monitoring strategies, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, estrogenic compounds, resin acids, hepatotoxins and per- and polyfluorinated substances. The main caveats of this type of assessment are also discussed, as well as future directions of fish bile studies.

Bioaccumulation/bioconcentration of pharmaceutical active compounds in aquatic organisms: Assessment and factors database

There is increasing evidence that the presence of certain pharmaceuticals in the environment leads to biota exposure and constitute a potential risk for ecosystems. Bioaccumulation is an essential focus of risk assessment to evaluate at what degree emerging contaminants are a hazard both to the environment and the individuals that inhabit it. The main goals of the present review are 1) to summarize and describe the research and factors that should be taken into account in the evaluation of bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals in aquatic organisms; and 2) to provide a database and a critical review of the bioaccumulation/bioconcentration factors (BAF or BCF) of these compounds in organisms of different trophic levels. Most studies fall into one of two categories: laboratory-scale absorption and purification tests or field studies and, to a lesser extent, large-scale, semi-natural system tests. Although in the last 5 years there has been considerable progress in this field, especially in species of fish and molluscs, research is still limited on other aquatic species like crustaceans or algae. This revision includes >230 bioconcentration factors (BCF) and >530 bioaccumulation factors (BAF), determined for 113 pharmaceuticals. The most commonly studied is the antidepressant group, followed by diclofenac and carbamazepine. There is currently no reported accumulation data on certain compounds, such as anti-cancer drugs. BCFs are highly influenced by experimental factors (notably the exposure level, time or temperature). Field BAFs are superior to laboratory BCFs, highlighting the importance of field studies for reliable assessments and in true environmental conditions. BAF data appears to be organ, species and compound-specific. The potential impact on food web transfer is also considered. Among different aquatic species, lower trophic levels and benthic organisms exhibit relatively higher uptake of these compounds.

Simultaneous quantification of nineteen Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in oral fluid by liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry. Application on ultratrail runner's oral fluid

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a therapeutic class suspected to be used by ultratrail runners. The use of NSAIDs during ultratrails is known to be associated with various adverse effects. To study the prevalence of NSAIDs intake in ultratrail runners, oral fluid (OF) is a relevant matrix as it is noninvasive and easy to collect. The aim of our work was to develop and validate a liquid-liquid extraction followed by a LC-MS/HRMS method for the simultaneous quantification of nineteen NSAIDs in OF. After a comparison of different liquid-liquid extraction methods, a double step liquid-liquid extraction with chloroform was performed on OF collected with Quantisal®, with extraction recoveries higher than 90 %. An Accucore AQ column was selected for the chromatographic separation of NSAIDs. The Q Exactive Plus mass spectrometer operated in full scan and ddms2 mode after positive and negative electrospray ionization. Selectivity, carry-over, matrix effect, and linearity were validated for all NSAIDs. Within-day and between-day accuracy and precision were validated for all NSAIDs (< 15 % for QC samples and < 20 % for LLOQ), except within-day accuracy for the LLOQ of mefenamic acid. A stability study was also performed on OF at room temperature and +4 °C. The method was applied on OF from runners who participate to Ultra Trail du Mont-Blanc®.

Evaluation of ibuprofen contamination in local urban rivers and its effects on immune parameters of juvenile grass carp

Ibuprofen as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug can be detected in the aquatic environments all over the world. This study evaluated the effects of ibuprofen on the immune parameters of juvenile grass carp at the concentration in real environments which were determined by detecting its concentrations in the surface water of local rivers. The concentration of ibuprofen ranged from 13.2 to 95.5 ng/L with a mean value of 47.9 ng/L in the surface water of local rivers detected by solid-phase extraction followed by LC-MS/MS analysis. Accordingly, juvenile grass carp were exposed to 4.8, 48.0 and 480.0 ng/L of ibuprofen for 14 days. The serum lysozyme activity of these fish decreased, while the serum creatinine levels were not affected after the exposure. Moreover, the mRNA expression of interleukin 6 in the skin and interleukin 1 beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha in the gills was enhanced by this exposure. These results collectively suggest that ibuprofen at environmentally relevant concentration can affect the immune parameters of juvenile grass carp, providing an insight into the possibility of this contaminant to modify the immunostatus of fish.

Long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of ibuprofen and aluminum alters oxidative stress status on Danio rerio

Despite the ubiquitous presence of multiple pollutants in aqueous environments have been extensively demonstrated, the ecological impact of chemical cocktails has not been studied in depth. In recent years, environmental studies have mainly focused on the risk assessment of individual chemical substances neglecting the effects of complex mixtures even though it has been demonstrated that combined effects exerted by pollutants might represent a greater hazard to the biocenosis. The current study evaluates the effects on the oxidative stress status induced by individual forms and binary mixtures of ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) on brain, gills, liver and gut tissues of Danio rerio after long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1-11 μg L^-1 and 0.05 mg L^-1- 6 mg L^-1, respectively). Lipid peroxidation (LPO), Protein carbonyl content (PCC) and activity of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), and Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) were evaluated. Moreover, concentrations of both toxicants and the metabolite 2-OH-IBU were quantified on test water and tissues. Results show that ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) singly promote the production of radical species and alters the oxidative stress status in all evaluated tissues of zebrafish, nevertheless, higher effects were elicited by mixtures as different interactions take place.

The challenge of micropollutants in surface water of the Yangtze River

The Yangtze River, the third largest river and supporting nearly one-third of Chinese population, has been severely polluted in recent decades. Among the numerous pollutants, organic micropollutants, as one kind of important emerging contaminants, are currently key contaminants of concern. However, few studies have focused on their mixture environmental impacts, especially for the complex environmental mixtures. In the current study, four categories of organic micropollutants, including 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 32 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 27 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and 20 pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are analyzed in 10 study sites on the Yangtze River. Subsequently, comprehensive risk assessment for micropollutant mixtures was conducted by risk quotient based on the sum of PEC/PNEC values (RQ_MEC/PNEC) and risk quotient based on the toxic units (RQ_STU). The mixture risk evaluation based on the detected environmental concentrations indicates that micropollutant mixtures in surface water of the Yangtze River exhibited relative high risks for aquatic organisms. The observed results revealed that mixture risk assessments have to consider the complexity of environmental samples; PCBs dominated main mixture risks in the upper stream; PAHs contributed major comprehensive risks in the middle stream; and OCPs were the key micropollutants in the downstream. The outcomes of the present study here can serve for pollution control in the Yangtze River, which provide the scientific underpinnings and regulatory reference for risk management and river protection.

Neuroactive drugs and other pharmaceuticals found in blood plasma of wild European fish

To gain a better understanding of which pharmaceuticals could pose a risk to fish, 94 pharmaceuticals representing 23 classes were analyzed in blood plasma from wild bream, chub, and roach captured at 18 sites in Germany, the Czech Republic and the UK, respectively. Based on read across from humans, we evaluated the risks of pharmacological effects occurring in the fish for each measured pharmaceutical. Twenty-three compounds were found in fish plasma, with the highest levels measured in chub from the Czech Republic. None of the German bream had detectable levels of pharmaceuticals, whereas roach from the Thames had mostly low concentrations. For two pharmaceuticals, four individual Czech fish had plasma concentrations higher than the concentrations reached in the blood of human patients taking the corresponding medication. For nine additional compounds, determined concentrations exceeded 10% of the corresponding human therapeutic plasma concentration in 12 fish. The majority of the pharmaceuticals where a clear risk for pharmacological effects was identified targets the central nervous system. These include e.g. flupentixol, haloperidol, and risperidone, all of which have the potential to affect fish behavior. In addition to identifying pharmaceuticals of environmental concern, the results emphasize the value of environmental monitoring of internal drug levels in aquatic wildlife, as well as the need for more research to establish concentration-response relationships.

Ecological risk assessment of fifty pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Chinese surface waters: A proposed multiple-level system

Interest in the risks posed by trace concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface waters is increasing, particularly with regard to potential effects of long-term, low-dose exposures of aquatic organisms. In most cases, the actual studies on PPCPs were risk assessments at screening-level, and accurate estimates were scarce. In this study, exposure and ecotoxicity data of 50 PPCPs were collected based on our previous studies, and a multiple-level environmental risk assessment was performed. The 50 selected PPCPs are likely to be frequently detected in surface waters of China, with concentrations ranging from the ng L^-1 to the low-g L^-1, and the risk quotients based on median concentrations ranged from 2046 for nonylphenol to 0 for phantolide. A semi-probabilistic approach screened 33 PPCPs that posed potential risks to aquatic organisms, among which 15 chemicals (nonylphenol, sulfamethoxazole, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, 17β-ethynyl estradiol, caffeine, tetracycline, 17β-estradiol, estrone, dibutyl phthalate, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, tonalide, galaxolide, triclosan, and bisphenol A) were categorized as priority compounds according to an optimized risk assessment, and then the refined probabilistic risk assessment indicated 12 of them posed low to high risk to aquatic ecosystem, with the maximum risk products ranged from 1.54% to 17.38%. Based on these results, we propose that the optimized risk assessment was appropriate for screening priority contaminants at national scale, and when a more accurate estimation is required, the refined probability risk assessment is useful. The methodology and process might provide reference for other research of chemical evaluation and management for rivers, lakes, and sea waters.

A toxicological study on photo-degradation products of environmental ibuprofen: Ecological and human health implications

Increasing quantities of pharmaceutical waste in the environment have disrupted the balance of ecosystems, and may have subsequent effects on human health. Although a handful of previous studies have shown the impacts of pharmaceutically active compounds on the environment, the toxicological effects of their degradation products remain largely unknown. In the current study, the photo-degradation products of environmental ibuprofen were assessed for both ecotoxicological and human health effects using a series of in vitro assays. Here, six of the major degradation products are synthesized with high purity (>98%) and characterized with ¹HNMR, ¹³CNMR, FT-IR and HRMS. To evaluate human health effects, three gut microbiota species, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli, and two human cell lines, HEK293T and HepG2, are exposed to various concentrations of ibuprofen and its degradation products. On L. acidophilus, the ibuprofen degradation product (±)-(2R,3R)-2-(4-isobutylphenyl)-5-methylhexan-3-ol shows a greater toxic effect while ibuprofen enhances its growth at lower concentrations. At higher concentrations, ibuprofen shows at least a 2-fold higher toxicity compared to that of its degradation products. However, E. faecalis shows little or no effect upon exposure to these compounds. An induction of the SOS response in E. coli is observed but limited to only ibuprofen and 4-acetylbenzoic acid. In human cell line studies, survival of both HEK293T and HepG2 cell lines is profoundly impaired by the photo-degradation products of (±)- (2R,3R)-2-(4-isobutylphenyl)-5-methylhexan-3-ol, (±)-(2R,3S)-2-(4-isobutylphenyl)-5-methylhexan-3-ol, and (±)-1-(4-(1-hydroxy-2methylpropyl)phenyl)ethan-1-one. In this work, the bioluminescence bacterium, Aliivibrio fischeri, is used as a model to assess environmental impact. Both ibuprofen and its degradation products inhibit the growth of this gram-negative bacteria with the primary compound showing the most significant impact. Overall, our results highlight that some of the degradation products of ibuprofen can be more toxic to human kidney cell line and liver cell line than the parent compound while ibuprofen can be more toxic to human gut microbiota and A. fischeri than ibuprofen degradation products.

Metabolite identification of ibuprofen biodegradation by Patulibacter medicamentivorans under aerobic conditions

Ibuprofen (IBU) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that is becoming increasingly recognized as an important micropollutant to be monitored in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), since it has been detected in effluents at the µg L^-1 level. The IBU metabolites from biological degradation are not completely understood and can represent a threat to natural aquatic systems. P. medicamentivorans was previously isolated from WWTP sludge and found to be capable of IBU degradation. The aerobic biodegradation of ibuprofen by this organism was investigated in a batch lab-scale reactor for the identification of the metabolites formed. The metabolites were analysed and putatively identified by HPLC-DAD-MS/MS and GC-MS and biodegradation pathways were proposed. The toxicity and the biodegradability potential of the metabolites were also investigated. The results showed that IBU biotransformation was achieved by hydroxylation followed by the formation of a carboxylic acid in the IBU molecule and by the formation of a catechol, allowing the aromatic ring cleavage. Two biodegradation pathways were proposed: in one, the metabolites generated from the enzymatic action correspond to a less biodegradable chemical structure of the intermediate products (isobutylbenzene and 3-isobutylphenol), with comparatively higher toxicity; in the other mechanism, more oxidable chemical structures were formed with less toxicity and higher biodegradability. This suggests that the biodegradation of IBU by P. medicamentivorans can take place by more than one mechanism regarding the enzymes formed by this Gram-positive bacterium, with subsequent oxidation of the parent compound to overall more soluble and less toxic compounds to fish, daphnia and green algae.

Enhanced electrochemical degradation of ibuprofen in aqueous solution by PtRu alloy catalyst

Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) regarded as a green technology for aqueous ibuprofen treatment was investigated in this study. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), Pt nanoparticles (Pt NPs), and PtRu alloy, of which physicochemical properties were characterized by XRD and X-ray absorption spectroscopy, were used to synthesize three types of cheap and effective anodes based on commercial conductive glass. Furthermore, the operating parameters, such as the current densities, initial concentrations, and solution pH were also investigated. The intermediates determined by a UPLC-Q-TOF/MS system were used to evaluate the possible reaction pathway of ibuprofen (IBU). The results revealed that the usage of MWCNTs and PtRu alloy can effectively reduce the grain size of electrocatalysts and increase the surface activity from the XRD and XANES analysis. The results of CV analysis, degradation and mineralization efficiencies revealed that the EAOPs with PtRu-FTO anode were very effective due to advantages of the higher capacitance, CO tolerance, catalytic ability at less positive voltage and stability. The concentration trend of intermediates indicated that the potential cytotoxic to human caused by 1-(1-hydroxyenthyl)-4-isobutylbenzene was completely eliminated as the reaction time reaches 60 min. Therefore, EAOPs combined with synthesized anodes can be feasibly applied on the electrochemical degradation of ibuprofen.

Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of pharmaceuticals in food webs from a large freshwater lake

Pharmaceuticals are increasingly detected in environmental matrices, but information on their trophic transfer in aquatic food webs is insufficient. This study investigated the bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of 23 pharmaceuticals in Taihu Lake, China. Pharmaceutical concentrations were analyzed in surface water, sediments and 14 aquatic species, including plankton, invertebrates and fish collected from the lake. The median concentrations of the detected pharmaceuticals ranged from not detected (ND) to 49 ng/L in water, ND to 49 ng/g dry weight (dw) in sediments, and from ND to 130 ng/g dw in biota. Higher concentrations of pharmaceuticals were found in zoobenthos relative to plankton, shrimp and fish muscle. In fish tissues, the observed pharmaceutical contents in the liver and brain were generally higher than those in the gills and muscle. Both bioaccumulation factors (median BAFs: 19-2008 L/kg) and biota-sediment accumulation factors (median BSAFs: 0.0010-0.037) indicated a low bioaccumulation potential for the target pharmaceuticals. For eight of the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals in food webs, the trophic magnification factors (TMFs) were analyzed from two different regions of Taihu Lake. The TMFs for roxithromycin, propranolol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, ofloxacin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin and tetracycline in the two food webs ranged from 0.28 to 1.25, suggesting that none of these pharmaceuticals experienced trophic magnification. In addition, the pharmaceutical TMFs did not differ significantly between the two regions in Taihu Lake.

Drugs of environmental concern modify Solea senegalensis physiology and biochemistry in a temperature-dependent manner

The alerted presence in recent decades of pharmaceuticals has become an issue of environmental concern, and most of the mechanisms of biotransformation and biochemical and physiological responses to them in fish are still unknown, as well as the influence of water temperature in their ability to cope with them. This study aims to detect the main effects of two of the most widespread drugs on a set of physiological and biochemical markers in Solea senegalensis. Sole juveniles acclimatized at 15 and 20 °C were administered an intraperitoneal injection of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen (IB; 10 mg/kg) and the anti-convulsant drug carbamazepine (CBZ; 1 mg/kg). Two days after the injection, liver, muscle and plasma were sampled. Liver enzymatic activities of 15 °C acclimated fish were more responsive to pharmaceuticals than those acclimated at 20 °C, especially for CYP450-related activities (7-ethoxyresorufin (EROD), 7-methoxyresorufin (MROD), 3-cyano-7-ethoxycoumarin (CECOD) and 7-benzyloxy-4-[trifluoromethyl]-coumarin-O-debenzyloxylase (BFCOD)) and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT). Cytosolic anti-oxidant enzyme activities and glutathione S-transferase (GST) did not show a clear effect of temperature. Glucose and transferase activities in plasma were not affected by the treatments, while ammonium, osmolality and lactate were affected by both pharmaceuticals. Plasma triglycerides were affected in a temperature-dependent manner, and creatinine was only responsive to CBZ injection. HSP70 levels in muscle were only affected by CBZ injection. Some of the physiological identified responses to IB and CBZ are proposed as endpoints in further chronic studies.

Bioconcentration of phenanthrene and metabolites in bile and behavioral alterations in the tropical estuarine guppy Poecilia vivipara

Quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites in fish bile is widely used to evaluate levels of internal PAH contamination in fish, whereas behavioral effects are deemed important to address potential risks to fish populations. The estuarine guppy Poecilia vivipara was exposed for 96h to waterborne phenanthrene at concentrations of 10, 50, 200 and 500μgL(-1). Phenanthrene and metabolites in bile were analyzed by fixed fluorescence at 260/380nm (excitation/emission) wavelengths. Phenanthrene increased in the bile of exposed fish in a dose-dependent pattern, and log bile bioconcentration factors ranged from 4.3 to 3.9 at 10 and 500μgL(-1) phenanthrene, respectively, values that are similar to predicted bioconcentration factors based on phenanthrene Kow. Swimming resistance index was reduced to 81% of control values at 500μgL(-1). Alteration of swimming speed was non monotonic, with a significant speed increase relative to control fish in treatments 50 and 200μgL(-1) phenanthrene, respectively, followed by a speed decrease in fish exposed to 500μgL(-1). However, swimming trajectories of fish exposed to 50, 200 and 500μgL(-1) was altered by the development of a repetitive circular swimming behavior, in contrast to the controls that explored the entire experimental arena. This change in swimming patterns apparently explains the reduction in prey capture rates at 200μgL(-1) phenanthrene. This study provides important information enabling the use of the estuarine guppy P. vivipara to monitor PAH metabolites in bile and its bioconcentration, linking internal exposure with ecologically relevant behavioral effects in the species.

Determination of metabolites of diosmetin-7-O-glucoside by a newly isolated Escherichia coli from human gut using UPLC-Q-TOF/MS

Different human intestinal bacteria were isolated and screened for their ability to transform diosmetin-7-O-glucoside. A Gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, strain 4, capable of metabolizing diosmetin-7-O-glucoside was newly isolated. Its 16S rRNA gene sequence displayed 99% similarity with that of Escherichia. Then strain 4 was identified as a species of the genus Escherichia and was named Escherichia sp. 4. Additionally, an ultraperformance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) technique combined with Metabolynx software method was established to screen the metabolites of diosmetin-7-O-glucoside. Comparing the retention time and MS/MS spectrum, three metabolites were detected and tentatively identified. These metabolites were acquired by four proposed metabolic pathways including dehydroxylation, deglycosylation, methylation, and acetylation. Diosmetin-7-O-glucoside was mainly bioconverted to considerable amounts of diosmetin and minor amounts of acacetin by the majority of the isolated intestinal bacteria such as Escherichia sp. 4. Subsequently, several strains could degrade acacetin to produce methylated and acetylated acacetin. The metabolites and metabolic pathways of diosmetin-7-O-glucoside by human intestinal bacterium Escherichia sp. 4 were first investigated.