Characterization of polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants in sludge, sediment and fish from municipal dumpsite at Surabaya, Indonesia

Drivers of change behind the spatial distribution and fate of typical trace organic pollutants in fresh waste leachate across China

There have been growing concerns regarding the health and environmental impacts of trace organic pollutants (TOPs). However, fresh leachate from municipal solid waste (MSW) has been overlooked as a potential reservoir of TOPs. Therefore, we investigated 90 legacy and emerging TOPs in fresh leachate from 14 provinces and municipalities in China. Additionally, the fate and final discharge impacts of TOPs in 14 leachate treatment systems were analyzed. The results revealed that the detection rate of 90 TOPs was over 50 % in all samples. Notably, polychlorinated biphenyls, banned for 40 years, were frequently detected in fresh leachate. The concentration of pseudo-persistent TOPs (105-107 ng/L) is significantly higher than that of persistent TOPs (102-104 ng/L). Spatial distribution patterns of TOPs in fresh leachate suggest that economy, population, climate, and policies impact TOPs discharge from MSW. For example, economically developed and densely populated areas displayed higher TOPs concentrations, whereas warmer climates facilitate TOPs leaching from MSW. We confirmed that waste classification policies were a key driver of the decline in multiple TOPs in leachate. Mass balance analysis shows that the final effluent and sludge from current dominant leachate treatment systems contain refractory TOPs, especially perfluoroalkyl acids, which must be prioritized for control. This paper was the first comprehensive investigation of multiple TOPs in fresh leachate at a large geographic scale. The factors affecting the occurrence, spatial distribution, and fate of TOPs in fresh leachate were revealed. It provides a valuable reference for the establishment of policies for the management of TOPs in MSW and the associated leachate.

The first full-congener analysis of 209 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the blubber of short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) stranded along the coast of Savu Island, Indonesia

Short-finned pilot whales (SFPW) are a group of cetaceans found globally in tropical and temperate seas and are commonly stranded in the group, but the reason behind their stranding is still unknown. No detailed information on the contamination status and bioaccumulation of halogenated organic compounds, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in the SFPW from Indonesian waters has been reported. Therefore, we analyzed all 209 PCB congeners in the blubber of 20 SFPW specimens stranded along the coast of Savu Island, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, in October 2012 to explain the status of contamination, congener profiles, potential risk of PCBs to cetaceans, and the determination of unintentionally produced PCBs (u-PCBs) in the blubber of SFPW. Concentrations of Σ209PCBs, Σ7in-PCBs, Σ12dl-PCBs, and Σ21u-PCBs were between 48 and 490 (mean:240 ± 140), 22-230 (110 ± 60), 2.6-38 (17 ± 10), and 1.0-13 (6.3 ± 3.7) ng g^-1 lipid weight (lw), respectively. Congener-specific profiles of PCBs among sex and estimated age groups were observed; relatively high proportions of tri-to penta-CBs in juveniles and highly chlorinated recalcitrant congeners in structure-activity groups (SAGs) in sub-adult females were noted. The estimated toxic equivalency (TEQs) value for dl-PCBs ranged from 2.2 to 60 TEQ_WHO pg/g lw, with juveniles containing high TEQ values than sub-adults and adults. Although the TEQs and concentrations of PCBs in SFPW stranded along Indonesian coasts were lower than those reported for similar whale species from other North Pacific regions, further research is needed to assess the long-term impact of halogenated organic pollutants on their survival and health.

First insight into accumulation of characteristics and tissue distribution of PCBs, PBDEs, and other BFRs in the living Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis)

Persistent organic pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and other brominated flame retardants, were detected in the liver, muscle, and ovary tissues of the Indonesian coelacanth (Latimeria menadoensis) incidentally caught around Gangga Island, North Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, on November 5, 2014. Concentrations of total PCBs (209 congeners, 300-2600 ng g^-1 lipid weight) in all tissues showed higher than those of PBDEs (41 congeners, 3.9-6.3 ng g^-1 lw) and BTBPE (1.1-3.6 ng g^-1 lw). The tissue-specific PCB and PBDE profiles were likely due to differences in the lipid composition. Toxic equivalent (TEQ) values of dioxin-like PCBs in coelacanth tissues were lower than the benchmark values for early-life fish. However, compared with the data reported for deep-sea fishes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the relatively high concentrations of PCBs detected in this study raise concerns regarding Indonesian coelacanth conservation and habitat conditions.

Microplastics in dumping site soils from six Asian countries as a source of plastic additives

The ubiquitous distribution of microplastics (MP) is a serious environmental issue in Asian countries. In this study, 54 open-dumping site soils collected from Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, and Vietnam were analyzed for MP. Soil samples were also divided into light (floating) and heavy (sedimentation) fractions by density separation and analyzed for plastic additives. The highest abundance of MP was found in a soil from Cambodia at 218,182 pieces/kg. The median of MP in soils ranged from 1411 pieces/kg in India to 24,000 pieces/kg in the Philippines, suggesting that dumping sites are a major source of MP into the environment. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate were dominant polymers in soil samples analyzed. This indicates that daily-used plastic products are main sources of MP in dumping site soils in Asian countries. The high concentrations and burdens of phthalates and an antioxidant were detected in floating fraction accounting for 40 to 60% of the total additives in soils. Previous studies on soil pollution have assumed that the organic hydrophobic chemicals analyzed are adsorbed on the surface of soil particles. However, this result indicates that approximately half of the additives in dumping site soils were derived from MP, not soil particle. Monitoring study on soil pollution should be considered the occurrence of MP in the matrices.

An Analysis of the Risk Posed by Leachate from Dumpsites in Developing Countries

The disposal of municipal solid waste into primarily dumpsites in developing countries causes a number of potential public and environmental health risks. While there have been various studies that have evaluated the contaminants that cause the risks, these studies have generally not examined in a holistic way the manner in which these contaminants move. This study therefore sought to model the flow of a range of contaminants in dumpsites (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn), and potential health risks as a means of enabling the more effective siting of facilities to reduce the risks posed. The study proposes a conservative model, using well consolidated equations and assumption, taking into account the path the pollutant makes to reach the water table and the point of exposure. The modelling may be useful to easily identify the boundaries of the area of risk related to the presence of a dumpsite in a Developing Country, beyond which a local community may use or build a safe well for drinking water. The results show as the area of risk is large and varies significantly with changes in input parameters, suggesting that without site-specific information it is better to follow conservative assumptions.

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination in Galveston Bay, Texas: Comparing concentrations and profiles in sediments, passive samplers, and fish

The industrialized portion of the Houston Ship Channel (HSC) is heavily contaminated with anthropogenic contaminants, most prominent of which are the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). This contamination has driven adaptive evolution in a keystone species for Galveston Bay, the Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis). We investigated the geographical extent of PCB impacts by sampling 12 sites, ranging from the heavily industrialized upper portion of the HSC to Galveston Island. At each site, PCB concentrations and profiles were determined in three environmental compartments: sediment, water (polyethylene passive samplers), and fish tissue (resident Gulf killifish). We observed a steep gradient of PCB contamination, ranging from 4.00 to 100,000 ng/g organic carbon in sediment, 290-110,000 ng/g lipid in fish, and 4.5-2300 ng/g polyethylene in passive samplers. The PCB congener profiles in Gulf killifish at the most heavily contaminated sites were shifted toward the higher chlorinated PCBs and were highly similar to the sediment contamination profiles. In addition, while magnitude of total PCB concentrations in sediment and total fish contamination levels were highly correlated between sites, the relative PCB congener profiles in fish and passive samplers were more alike. This strong correlation, along with a lack of dependency of biota-sediment accumulation factors with total contamination rates, confirm the likely non-migratory nature of Gulf killifish and suggest their contamination levels are a good site-specific indicator of contamination in the Galveston Bay area. The spatial gradient of PCB contamination in Galveston Bay was evident in all three matrices studied and was observed effectively using Gulf killifish contamination as an environmentally relevant bioindicator of localized contamination in this environment.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic products, indoor dust, sediment and fish from informal e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of contamination, accumulation pattern, emissions, and human exposure

Residue concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in different kinds of samples including consumer products, indoor dust, sediment and fish collected from two e-waste recycling sites, and some industrial, urban and suburban areas in Vietnam were determined to provide a comprehensive assessment of the contamination levels, accumulation pattern, emission potential and human exposure through dust ingestion and fish consumption. There was a large variation of PBDE levels in plastic parts of obsolete electronic equipment (from 1730 to 97,300 ng/g), which is a common result observed in consumer plastic products reported elsewhere. PBDE levels in indoor dust samples collected from e-waste recycling sites ranged from 250 to 8740 ng/g, which were markedly higher than those in industrial areas and household offices. Emission rate of PBDEs from plastic parts of disposed electronic equipment to dust was estimated to be in a range from 3.4 × 10^-7 to 1.2 × 10^-5 (year^-1) for total PBDEs and from 2.9 × 10^-7 to 7.2 × 10^-6 (year^-1) for BDE-209. Some fish species collected from ponds in e-waste recycling villages contained elevated levels of PBDEs, especially BDE-209, which were markedly higher than those in fish previously reported. Overall, levels and patterns of PBDE accumulation in different kinds of samples suggest significant emission from e-waste sites and that these areas are potential sources of PBDE contamination. Intakes of PBDEs via fish consumption were generally higher than those estimated through dust ingestion. Intake of BDE-99 and BDE-209 through dust ingestion contributes a large proportion due to higher concentrations in dust and fish. Body weight normalized daily intake through dust ingestion estimated for the e-waste recycling sites (0.10-3.46 ng/day/kg body wt.) were in a high range as compared to those reported in other countries. Our results highlight the potential releases of PBDEs from informal recycling activities and the high degree of human exposure and suggest the need for continuous investigations on environmental pollution and toxic impacts of e-waste-related hazardous chemicals.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in sewage sludge from Egypt

The purpose of this study was to determine the levels, distribution and toxicological potential of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sewage sludge samples from several WWTPs in the Alexandria area, Egypt. The POPs of interest were 26 PCBs and 16 OCPs. Analyses were performed by gas chromatography with electron impact mass spectrometric detection in the selected ion monitoring mode (GC-MS-SIM) using deuterated organochlorines as internal standards. Total concentrations of OCPs and Σ7 PCBs (ICES) in sludge ranged from 44.2 to 489 μg/kg dw. and 5,600 to 11,000 μg/kg dw., respectively. The highest concentration levels were found for PCBs, HCHs, DDTs, and HCB, in this order. The PCB homologue profiles in sludge samples were dominated by penta- and hexa-chlorinated biphenyls. Seasonal variations were observed for OCPs with higher levels in summer, which reflects more usage in warmer climates. Composite profiles of OCP metabolites indicated new inputs of lindane and technical endosulfan and earlier usage of DDT and technical chlordane. Contamination levels of OCPs and PCBs for Egyptian sludge can be categorized as moderate to high compared to other countries worldwide. The OCP content in none of the samples exceeded limits set by the European Commission for use of sludge in agriculture; while all the concentrations of PCBs in sludge samples were higher by one order of magnitude than the upper limit for land application.

Distribution pattern and the risks of OPCs, PHAs and PCBs in aged refuses from landfill

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are the urgent risk for landfill, and should be considered before the landfill reclamation and resource. In this work, the distribution pattern of selected POPs in landfill and their ecological risks were investigated and assessed. The Σ20OCPs, Σ16PAHs and Σ19PCBs were around 157.4-329.2, 4103-19,190, and 79.1-340.3μgkg(-1) in aged refuses, with the mean value of 206.6, 8645.4, and 155.1μgkg(-1). While those in soil covers were only 6.3-75.4, 125.5-515.3 and 2.6-43.4μgkg(-1), with the mean value of 33.7, 257.7, and 24.0μgkg(-1), respectively. The maximum OPCs, PHAs and PCBs were in aged refuse with 13, 7, 10 disposal years. Whereas, the corresponding top content in soil covers were in 10, 13 and 16years, meaning that aged refuses were not the direct source for soil covers. Among 20 OCPs measured, α-HCH, δ-HCH, Dieldrin, and Endrin were presented in all aged refuses, with the mean concentration of 93.6, 52.1, 3.9 and 4.7μgkg(-1), respectively. For PAHs, PHE, FLU and PYR were the main composition, and reached to 1535, 1224, 1187μgkg(-1). The Σ7CarPAHs occupied around 33.3-49.9% of total Σ16PAHs tested, and could be used as the indictor for PAHs pollutant in landfill. PCB-5 content was around 40.7-263.3μgkg(-1) in aged refuses, and occupied around 51.5-81.8% of Σ19PCBs measured. The HCHs and DDTs in aged refuses were below the national standard GB15618-1995, and the corresponding Σ19PCBs concentrations met the standard of GB 13015-91, suggesting that aged refuse are accepted for the further utilization process.

Hexabromocyclododecanes in surface sediments from Shanghai, China: spatial distribution, seasonal variation and diastereoisomer-specific profiles

The concentrations, spatial distribution, diastereoisomer-specific profiles of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in surface sediments from three major rivers in Shanghai as well as the seasonal variation of HBCDs were investigated. The concentrations of total HBCD diastereoisomers ranged from 0.05 to 6.87ngg(-1)dw. Significant spatial distribution of total HBCDs concentrations were observed. The mean concentration of total HBCDs followed the order of Suzhou Creek (2.00ngg(-1))>Huangpu River (1.59ngg(-1))>Yunzao Creek (0.77ngg(-1)). The concentration was a relatively low HBCDs level compared to levels measured in domestic and other parts of the world. The proportions of α-HBCD in sediment samples were generally higher than that of commercial formulations. This might be due to thermal isomerization from γ-HBCD to α-HBCD and slower degradation rate of α-HBCD compared to γ-HBCD in anaerobic conditions. The concentrations of ΣHBCD in the summer were significantly higher than those in the winter (paired t test, p<0.01). This seasonal variation could probably be attributed to a combined effect of temperature and wet deposition. Moreover, a poor and no significant correlation between ΣHBCD levels and TOC content in sediments was observed, suggesting that the spatial distributions of HBCDs were not constrained by the TOC in sediments of Shanghai.