Fate of the drug chlorpromazine in river water according to laboratory assays. Identification and evolution over time of degradation products. Sorption to sediment

Chlorpromazine's impact on Mytilus galloprovincialis: a multi-faceted investigation

The antipsychotic chlorpromazine (Cpz) has raised concern as a pharmaceutical effluent due to its wide medical applications. Moreover, its potent pro-oxidant properties and impact on the cell viability of the marine mollusc Mytilus galloprovincialis, even at low concentrations (ng/L), have been noted. Based on this evidence, in this study, we investigated the physiological effects of Cpz on M. galloprovincialis, to elucidate its fate within the organism, in terms of bioaccumulation, biotransformation, byssus changes and stress responses of the cellular thiolome. Histological and indicators of vitality analyses were also performed to better evaluate the influence of the drug on the morphology and cell viability of the digestive gland. To this end, two different concentrations of Cpz (Cpz I (12 ng/L or 37 pM) and Cpz II (12 μg/L or 37 nM)) were administered to mussels over 14 days. Cpz accumulation in the digestive gland significantly increased with water concentration (BCF of Cpz I and Cpz II). Biochemical analyses indicated lysosomal dysfunction, reflected in elevated total Cathepsin D activity and compromised lysosomal membrane stability. Stress-related and metal-buffering proteins (GST and metallothionein) responded to both Cpz concentrations. Cpz I induced phase I biotransformation activity (CYP450-dependent EROD), while Cpz II triggered caspase-3 activation, indicative of detoxification overload. Histological analysis revealed digestive gland atrophy, epithelial thinning, haemocyte infiltration, and brown cell presence. Byssus analysis showed significant alterations. In conclusion, our study underscores Cpz-induced physiological and histological changes in M. galloprovincialis, posing potential implications for mussel health and confirming the utilisation of this mussel as an indication of Cpz ecotoxicity.

Inhibitory Effects of Antipsychotic Chlorpromazine on the Survival, Reproduction and Population Growth Other Than Neurotransmitters of Zooplankton in Light of Global Warming

Global warming and environmental pollution have created a unique combination of abiotic and biotic stresses to zooplankton. However, little information is available on the effects of antipsychotic drugs commonly used to treat psychosis, such as chlorpromazine (CPZ), on non-target aquatic organisms in light of global warming. This study investigated how dopamine concentrations (DAC), acute toxicity and chronic toxicity of Brachionus calyciflorus changed in response to CPZ and gradually increasing temperatures. The results showed that the concentration range of rotifer DAC was 1.06~2.51 ng/g. At 18, 25 and 32 °C, the 24 h LC50 was 1.795, 1.242 and 0.833 mg/L, respectively. Compared to the control, exposure to CPZ significantly decreased life expectancy at hatching, the net reproduction rate, generation time, population growth rate and dopamine concentration of B. calyciflorus in all three temperatures (p < 0.05). The toxicity of CPZ to rotifers was increased by high temperature. These findings indicated that CPZ is highly toxic to rotifers, displaying high ecological risks to aquatic ecosystems.

Environmental concentrations of Roundup in combination with chlorpromazine or heating causes biochemical disturbances in the bivalve mollusc Unio tumidus

Bivalve molluscs represent the most recognized bioindicators of freshwater pollution. However, their ability to indicate specific xenobiotics in complex exposures is unclear. In this study, we aimed to track the particular effects of the pesticide Roundup (Rnd) and the antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine (Cpz) on the mussel Unio tumidus at the simpler environmentally relevant models. We treated the mussels by Rnd (17 μg L-1), Cpz (18 μg L-1), the mixture of Rnd and Cpz at 18 °C (RndCpz), and Rnd at 25 °C (RndT) and examined their digestive glands after 14 days of exposure. We analyzed total antioxidant capacity, glutathione (GSH&GSSG) and protein carbonyls levels, total and Zn-related concentrations of metallothioneins (MT and Zn-MT, respectively), the activities of CYP450-related EROD, glutathione S-transferase, cholinesterase, caspase-3, citrate synthase (CS), lysosomal membrane integrity (NRR), and Zn level in the tissue. Shared responses were indicated as the increase of the antioxidant, Zn-MT, and EROD levels, whereas the changes of Zn concentration, NRR, and caspase-3 activity were most diverse compared to control. According to discriminant analysis, complex exposures abolished the individual response traits and intensified the harmful effects that caused a decrease in the Zn level in the RndCpz- and RndT-groups and the loss of lysosomal integrity in the RndT-group. We concluded that multi-marker expertise with the application of integrated indices had benefits when evaluating the effects of complex exposures.

Sex-Specific Differences of Steroid Receptors Following Exposure to Environmentally Relevant Concentrations of Phenothiazine in Fundulus heteroclitus

Phenothiazine (PTZ) is a heterocyclic thiazine compound used for industrial and medical purposes. Through environmental surveillance studies, PTZ was found being discharged into a local river in Connecticut. Phenothiazine has been shown to act similarly to endocrine disrupting chemicals. This study sought to identify sex specific hormone receptor changes in Fundulus heteroclitus in response to PTZ exposure. Fundulus heteroclitus, also known as mummichog, are small fish native to the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada. They reside in brackish waters and can survive harsh toxic environments. This model organism is native to the polluted waters found in Connecticut. In this study, fish were exposed to PTZ concentrations of 0.5 ppm, 1.0 ppm, and 2.0 ppm for 1 week. Following exposure, brain, liver, and gonad tissues were harvested; cDNA was synthesized; and mRNA expression was assessed for 6 different hormone receptors. Compared with vehicle control (ethanol) differences in mRNA expression, levels of hormone receptors were observed in various tissues from male and female fish. Many of the tissues assessed showed changes in expression level, while only female liver and testis showed no change. These results implicate PTZ as a potential endocrine disrupting compound to mummichog at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Fenton process on single and mixture components of phenothiazine pharmaceuticals: Assessment of intermediaries, fate, and preliminary ecotoxicity

Pharmaceuticals do not occur isolated in the environment but in multi-component mixtures and may exhibit antagonist, synergistic or additive behavior. Knowledge on this is still scarce. The situation is even more complicated if effluents or potable water is treated by oxidative processes or such transformations occur in the environment. Thus, determining the fate and effects of parent compounds, metabolites and transformation products (TPs) formed by transformation and degradation processes in the environment is needed. This study investigated the fate and preliminary ecotoxicity of the phenothiazine pharmaceuticals, Promazine (PRO), Promethazine (PRM), Chlorpromazine (CPR), and Thioridazine (THI) as single and as components of the resulting mixtures obtained from their treatment by Fenton process. The Fenton process was carried out at pH7 and by using 0.5-2mgL^-1 of [Fe²⁺]₀ and 1-12.5mgL^-1 of [H₂O₂]₀ at the fixed ratio [Fe²⁺]₀:[H₂O₂]₀ of 1:10 (w:w). No complete mineralization was achieved. Constitutional isomers and some metabolite-like TPs formed were suggested based on their UHPLC-HRMSⁿ data. A degradation pathway was proposed considering interconnected mechanisms such as sulfoxidation, hydroxylation, N-dealkylation, and dechlorination steps. Aerobic biodegradation tests (OECD 301 D and OECD 301 F) were applied to the parent compounds separately, to the mixture of parent compounds, and for the cocktail of TPs present after the treatment by Fenton process. The samples were not readily biodegradable. However, LC-MS analysis revealed that abiotic transformations, such hydrolysis, and autocatalytic transformations occurred. The initial ecotoxicity tested towards Vibrio fischeri as individual compounds featured a reduction in toxicity of PRM and CPR by the treatment process, whereas PRO showed an increase in acute luminescence inhibition and THI a stable luminescence inhibition. Concerning effects of the mixture components, reduction in toxicity by the Fenton process was predicted by concentration addition and independent action models.

The distribution dynamics and desorption behaviour of mobile pharmaceuticals and caffeine to combined sewer sediments

Pharmaceuticals are discharged to the environment from wastewater resource recovery facilities, sewer overflows, and illicit sewer connections. To understand the fate of pharmaceuticals, there is a need to better understand their sorption dynamics to suspended sediments (SS) and settled sediments (StS) in sewer systems. In this study, such sorption dynamics to both SS and StS were assessed using a batch equilibrium method under both static and dynamic conditions. Experiments were performed with natively occurring and artificially modified concentrations of sewer pharmaceuticals (acetaminophen, theophylline, carbamazepine, and a metabolite of carbamazepine) and caffeine. Differences in apparent distribution coefficients, K_d,app, between SS and StS were related to differences in their organic carbon (OC) content, and the practice of artificially modifying the concentration. K_d,app values of modified contaminant concentrations and high OC sediments were substantially higher. Pseudo-second order desorption rates for these mobile compounds were also quantified. Successive flushing events to simulate the addition of stormwater to sewer networks revealed that aqueous concentrations would not necessarily decrease, because the added water will rapidly return to equilibrium concentrations with the sediments. Sorption and desorption kinetics must be considered in addition to dilution, to avoid underestimating the influence of dilution on concentrations of pharmaceuticals discharged to the environment.