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Wu R, Sin YY, Cai L, Wang Y, Hu M, Liu X, Xu W, Kwan KY, Gonçalves D, Chan BKK, Zhang K, Chui APY, Chua SL, Fang JKH, Leung KMY. Pharmaceutical Residues in Edible Oysters along the Coasts of the East and South China Seas and Associated Health Risks to Humans and Wildlife. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:5512-5523. [PMID: 38478581 PMCID: PMC10976893 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
The investigation of pharmaceuticals as emerging contaminants in marine biota has been insufficient. In this study, we examined the presence of 51 pharmaceuticals in edible oysters along the coasts of the East and South China Seas. Only nine pharmaceuticals were detected. The mean concentrations of all measured pharmaceuticals in oysters per site ranged from 0.804 to 15.1 ng g-1 of dry weight, with antihistamines being the most common. Brompheniramine and promethazine were identified in biota samples for the first time. Although no significant health risks to humans were identified through consumption of oysters, 100-1000 times higher health risks were observed for wildlife like water birds, seasnails, and starfishes. Specifically, sea snails that primarily feed on oysters were found to be at risk of exposure to ciprofloxacin, brompheniramine, and promethazine. These high risks could be attributed to the monotonous diet habits and relatively limited food sources of these organisms. Furthermore, taking chirality into consideration, chlorpheniramine in the oysters was enriched by the S-enantiomer, with a relative potency 1.1-1.3 times higher when chlorpheniramine was considered as a racemate. Overall, this study highlights the prevalence of antihistamines in seafood and underscores the importance of studying enantioselectivities of pharmaceuticals in health risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongben Wu
- State
Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City
University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Department
of Food Science and Nutrition, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hung
Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Yan Yin Sin
- State
Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City
University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Lin Cai
- Shenzhen
Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Shenzhen 518120, China
| | - Youji Wang
- International
Research Center for Marine Biosciences at Shanghai Ocean University, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Menghong Hu
- International
Research Center for Marine Biosciences at Shanghai Ocean University, Ministry of Science and Technology, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Xiaoshou Liu
- College
of Marine Life Sciences and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean
Multispheres and Earth System, Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Wenzhe Xu
- College of
Marine and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin
University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Kit Yue Kwan
- College of
Marine Science, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Marine Biodiversity
Conservation, Beibu Gulf University, Qinzhou City, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region 535011, China
| | - David Gonçalves
- Institute
of Science and Environment, University of
Saint Joseph, Nossa
Senhora de Fátima, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | | | - Kai Zhang
- National
Observation and Research Station of Coastal Ecological Environments
in Macao, Macao Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Apple Pui-Yi Chui
- State
Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City
University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Simon F.S.
Li Marine Science Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Song Lin Chua
- Department
of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, State Key Laboratory of
Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, and Research Center for Deep
Space Explorations, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - James Kar-Hei Fang
- State
Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City
University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Department
of Food Science and Nutrition, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hung
Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Research
Institute for Future Food, and Research Institute for Land and Space, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
| | - Kenneth Mei-Yee Leung
- State
Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City
University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong SAR 999077, China
- Department
of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
SAR 999077, China
- Southern
Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519080, China
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Wilschnack M, Homer B, Cartmell E, Yates K, Petrie B. Targeted multi-analyte UHPLC-MS/MS methodology for emerging contaminants in septic tank wastewater, sludge and receiving surface water. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:709-720. [PMID: 38214144 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay01201h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Septic tanks treat wastewater of individual houses and small communities (up to 2000 people in Scotland) in rural and semi-urban areas and are understudied sources of surface water contamination. A multi-analyte methodology with solid phase extraction (SPE), ultra-sonic extraction, and direct injection sample preparation methods was developed to analyse a comprehensive range of emerging contaminants (ECs) including prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals and related metabolites, natural and synthetic hormones, and other human wastewater marker compounds in septic tank influent and effluent, river water, suspended solids, and septic tank sludge by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The number of quantifiable compounds in each matrix varied from 68 in septic tank wastewater to 59 in sludge illustrating its applicability across a range of matrices. Method quantification limits were 2.9 × 10-5-1.2 μg L-1 in septic tank influent, effluent and river water, with ≤0.01 μg L-1 achieved for 60% of ECs in all three water matrices, and 0.080-49 μg kg-1 in sludge. The developed method was applied to a septic tank (292 population equivalents) and the receiving river in the North-East of Scotland. Across all samples analysed, 43 of 68 ECs were detected in at least one matrix, demonstrating the method's sensitivity. The effluent concentrations suggest limited removal of ECs in septic tanks and a potential impact to river water quality for some ECs. However, further monitoring is required to better appreciate this. The developed methodology for a wide variety of ECs in a range of liquid and solid phases will allow, for the first time, a comprehensive assessment of ECs fate and removal in septic tanks, and their impact to surface water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Wilschnack
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
| | - Bess Homer
- Scottish Water, 55 Buckstone Terrace, Edinburgh EH10 6XH, UK
| | - Elise Cartmell
- Scottish Water, 55 Buckstone Terrace, Edinburgh EH10 6XH, UK
| | - Kyari Yates
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
| | - Bruce Petrie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
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3
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Wu R, Sin EYY, Zhang K, Xu S, Ruan Y, Mak YL, Yung YK, Sun SWC, Yang R, Lam PKS. Medicating the coast in a metropolitan city: Enantiomeric profiles and joint probabilistic risk assessment of antidepressants and antihistamines. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 184:108434. [PMID: 38237506 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals are receiving increasing attention as emerging contaminants in the aquatic environment. Herein, we investigated the occurrence of 11 antidepressants, 6 antihistamines and 4 metabolites in treated wastewater effluents, rivers, stormwater, and seawater in Hong Kong, with special focus on chirality. The average levels of ∑pharmaceuticals ranged from 0.525 to 1070 ng/L in all samples and the total annual mass load of target pharmaceuticals in the marine environment of Hong Kong was 756 kg/y. Antihistamines accounted for >80 % of ∑pharmaceuticals, with diphenhydramine and fexofenadine being predominant. The occurrence and enantiomeric profiles of brompheniramine and promethazine sulfoxide were reported in global natural waters for the first time. Among chiral pharmaceuticals, mirtazapine and fexofenadine exhibited R-preference, while others mostly exhibited S-preference, implying that the ecological risks derived from achiral data for chiral pharmaceuticals may be biased. The joint probabilistic risk assessment of fluoxetine revealed that R-fluoxetine and rac-fluoxetine presented different ecological risks from that of S-fluoxetine; Such assessment also revealed that target pharmaceuticals posed only minimal to low risks, except that diphenhydramine posed an intermediate risk. As estimated, 10 % aquatic species will be affected when the environmental level of diphenhydramine exceeds 7.40 ng/L, which was seen in 46.9 % samples. Collectively, this study highlights further investigations on the enantioselectivity of chiral pharmaceuticals, particularly on environmental behavior and ecotoxicity using local aquatic species as target organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongben Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Esther Yan-Yin Sin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China; National Observation and Research Station of Coastal Ecological Environment in Macao, Macao Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, 999078, Macao SAR, China
| | - Shaopeng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yuefei Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yim Ling Mak
- Water Quality Management Group, Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong SAR Government, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ying-Kit Yung
- Water Quality Management Group, Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong SAR Government, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Sunny Wai-Choi Sun
- Water Quality Management Group, Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong SAR Government, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Rong Yang
- Water Quality Management Group, Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong SAR Government, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Paul K S Lam
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Science, School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Niemi L, Landová P, Taggart M, Boyd K, Zhang Z, Gibb S. Spatiotemporal trends and annual fluxes of pharmaceuticals in a Scottish priority catchment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 292:118295. [PMID: 34626711 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals (a class of emerging contaminants) are continuously introduced into effluent-receiving surface waters due to their incomplete removal within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This work investigated the presence and distribution of eight commonly used human pharmaceuticals in the River Dee (Scotland, UK), a Scottish Environment Protection Agency priority catchment that is a conservation site and important raw water source. Grab sampling and passive sampling (Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler, POCIS) was performed over 12 months, targeting: paracetamol, ibuprofen, and diclofenac (analgesics/anti-inflammatories); clarithromycin and trimethoprim (antibiotics); carbamazepine and fluoxetine (psychoactive drugs); and 17α-ethynylestradiol (estrogen hormone). Sampling sites spanned from the river's rural source to the heavily urbanised estuary into the North Sea. Ibuprofen (ranging 0.8-697 ng/L), paracetamol (ranging 4-658 ng/L), trimethoprim (ranging 3-505 ng/L), diclofenac (ranging 2-324 ng/L) and carbamazepine (ranging 1-222 ng/L) were consistently detected at the highest concentrations through grab sampling, with concentrations generally increasing down river with increasing urbanisation. However, POCIS revealed trace contamination of most compounds throughout the river (commonly <0.5 ng/L), indicating pollution may be related to diffuse sources. Analysis of river flows revealed that low flow and warm seasons corresponded to statistically significantly higher concentrations of diclofenac and carbamazepine, two compounds of environmental and regulatory concern. Below the largest WWTP, annual average fluxes ranged 0.1 kg/yr (clarithromycin) to 143.8 kg/yr (paracetamol), with 226.2 kg/yr for total target compounds. It was estimated that this source contributed >70% of the total mass loads (dissolved phase) of the target compounds in the river. As the River Dee is an important raw water source and conservation site, additional catchment monitoring is warranted to safeguard water quality and assess environmental risk of emerging contaminants, particularly in relation to unusual weather patterns, climate change and population growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Niemi
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK; The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK.
| | - Pavlína Landová
- Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Purkyňova 464/118, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Mark Taggart
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Kenneth Boyd
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Zulin Zhang
- The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK
| | - Stuart Gibb
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, KW14 7JD, UK
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5
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An overview of analytical methods for enantiomeric determination of chiral pollutants in environmental samples and biota. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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6
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Petrie B. A review of combined sewer overflows as a source of wastewater-derived emerging contaminants in the environment and their management. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:10.1007/s11356-021-14103-1. [PMID: 33914245 PMCID: PMC8241663 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14103-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and personal care products can be released to the environment in untreated wastewater/stormwater mixtures following storm events. The frequency and intensity of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) has increased in some areas due to increasing urbanisation and climate change. Therefore, this review provides an up-to-date overview on CSOs as an environmental source of emerging contaminants. Other than compounds with high removal, those chiral species subject to enantioselective changes (i.e. degradation or inversion) during wastewater treatment can be effective markers of CSO discharge in the environment. A proposed framework for the selection of emerging contaminants as markers of CSOs is outlined. Studies have demonstrated that CSOs can be the main source of emerging contaminants with high removal efficiency during wastewater treatment (e.g. > 90%). However, the impact of CSOs on the environment is location specific and requires decision-making on their appropriate management at catchment level. This process would be aided by further studies on CSOs which incorporate the monitoring of emerging contaminants and their effects in the environment with those more routinely monitored pollutants (e.g. pathogens and priority substances). Mitigation and treatment strategies for emerging contaminants in CSOs are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Petrie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
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7
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Bertin S, Yates K, Petrie B. Enantiospecific behaviour of chiral drugs in soil. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 262:114364. [PMID: 32443211 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The importance of stereochemistry on the behaviour and effects of chiral pharmaceutical and illicit drugs in amended agricultural soils has been over looked to date. Therefore, this study was aimed at investigating the enantiospecific behaviour of a chemically diverse range of chiral drugs including naproxen, ibuprofen, salbutamol, bisoprolol, metoprolol, propranolol, acebutolol, atenolol, chlorpheniramine, amphetamine, fluoxetine and citalopram in soil microcosms. Considerable changes of the enantiomeric composition of ibuprofen, naproxen, atenolol, acebutolol and amphetamine were observed within 56 d. This is significant as enantiomer enrichment can favour the pharmacologically active (e.g., S(-)-atenolol) or less/non-active forms of the drug (e.g., R(-)-amphetamine). Single enantiomer microcosms showed enantiospecific degradation was responsible for enantiomer enrichment of atenolol and amphetamine. However, naproxen and ibuprofen enantiomers were subject to chiral inversion whereby one enantiomer converts to its antipode. Interestingly, chiral inversion was bidirectional and this is the first time it is reported in soil. Therefore, introduction of the less active enantiomer to soil through irrigation with reclaimed wastewater or biosolids as fertiliser can result in the formation of its active enantiomer, or vice versa. This phenomenon needs considered in risk assessment frameworks to avoid underestimating the risk posed by chiral drugs in amended soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Bertin
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK
| | - Kyari Yates
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK
| | - Bruce Petrie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
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McKenzie K, Moffat CF, Petrie B. Multi-residue enantioselective determination of emerging drug contaminants in seawater by solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:2881-2892. [PMID: 32930212 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay00801j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study proposes a new multi-residue enantioselective method for the determination of emerging drug contaminants in sea water by solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To achieve satisfactory enantiomeric separation with a vancomycin stationary phase it was essential to limit sodium chloride in extracted samples to <1 μg per injection. This was achieved through a straightforward SPE method using a 50 mL water wash volume and analyte elution in acetonitrile. A Chiral-V enantioselective column (150 × 2.1 mm; 2.7 μm particle size) operated in polar ionic mode enabled simultaneous drug separations in 30 minutes. Analytes with enantioresolution ≥1 were the stimulants amphetamine and methamphetamine, the beta-agonist salbutamol, the beta-blockers propranolol, sotalol and acebutolol, the anti-depressants fluoxetine, venlafaxine, desmethylvenlafaxine and citalopram, and the antihistamine chlorpheniramine. Method quantitation limits were <10 ng L-1 and method trueness was 80-110% for most analytes. The method was applied to samples from the Forth and Clyde estuaries, Scotland. Chiral drugs were present at concentrations in the range 4-159 ng L-1 and several were in non-racemic form (enantiomeric fraction ≠ 0.50) demonstrating enantiomer enrichment. This emphasises the need for further enantiospecific drug exposure and effect studies in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie McKenzie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
| | - Colin F Moffat
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
- Office of the Chief Scientific Advisor Marine, Scottish Government, Marine Laboratory, 375 Victoria Road, Aberdeen, AB11 9DB, UK
| | - Bruce Petrie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
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Sanganyado E, Lu Z, Liu W. Application of enantiomeric fractions in environmental forensics: Uncertainties and inconsistencies. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 184:109354. [PMID: 32182482 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The assumption that only biological processes are enantioselective introduces challenges in the reliability of enantioselective analysis as a tool for discriminating biotic and abiotic processes in the environmental fate of chiral pollutants. Enantioselectivity does not depend on the nature of the fate process a chiral contaminant undergoes but on the interaction of the chiral contaminant with homochirality inducing external agents (e.g. chiral molecules, macromolecules or surfaces such as enzymes, blood plasma, proteins, chiral co-pollutants, humic acid and soil organominerals). The environmental behavior of a chiral contaminant is difficult to anticipate because the interactions between the chiral contaminants and the homochirality inducing external agents is often complex and strongly influenced by local environment conditions such as pH, redox conditions, organic carbon, organic nitrogen, humic acid, and redox conditions. Furthermore, the use of enantioselective analysis in environmental forensics depend on the adequate separation and accurate identification and quantification of the enantiomers of the chiral contaminant. Matrix effects, instrument effects, inadequate enantioselective separation, and poor quantification techniques introduce uncertainties in the determination of enantiomeric composition. Here we present the weaknesses of this assumption and recommend using enantiomeric fractions as chemical markers of biotransformation with caution. We recommend using stable isotopes, including abiotic controls to determine if enantioselective sorption occurs, and determining stability of enantiomers in solvent or at elevated temperatures to account for confounding factors arising from matrix effects, enantioselective abiotic processes, and enantiomerization due solvent and thermal lability of the chiral analyte, respectively to maintain the integrity of the utility of enantiomeric composition changes as an environmental forensics tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmond Sanganyado
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong, 515063, China
| | - Zhijiang Lu
- College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, China
| | - Wenhua Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong, 515063, China.
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