In vitro investigations of the metabolism of Victoria pure blue BO dye to identify main metabolites for food control in fish

Identification of pollutant markers in rural mountainous areas of China by combining non-targeted analysis with zebrafish embryo toxicity tests

Emerging pollutants (EPs) are increasingly found around the world, yet their composition and the risks pose to soil environments remain unclear, making a challenge to EP management, particularly in mountainous rural areas. In this study, we collected soils from three types of mountainous villages, each representing different levels of economic development: an industrial village, an ecotourism village, and an agricultural village. We analyzed these samples using non-target analysis and Danio rerio embryotoxicity test (ZET). A total of 216 compounds (level 2) were identified by matching with mzCloud database, with 149, 107, and 157 found in YY (industrial village), DX (ecotourism village) and LH (agricultural village), respectively. Interestingly, 78 compounds were present in all three villages, while the number of unique substances ranged from 7 to 47 in each village, serving as potential pollution markers. The most prevalent substances identified were aliphatics, heterocyclics, and aromatics. The ZET results showed that all soil extracts had significant acute toxic effects. Further analysis revealed a correlation between the toxic substances and the economic types of the villages. Specifically, linear chain dicarboxylic acids, drugs, and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OPAHs) were the primary toxicants in the industrial village, whereas phthalate esters dominated in the other two villages. These findings provide valuable insights for effective monitoring of EPs in mountainous rural areas.

Targeted and non-targeted metabolic analysis of chlorpromazine in grass carp as well as the in-silico and metabolomics toxicity assessment

Chlorpromazine (CPZ) is an abused sedative that is extensively metabolized in organisms. However, the metabolic pathway of CPZ in aquatic organisms is still unclear. In this study, CPZ metabolites was analyzed in grass carp exposed to CPZ in the raising water using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS). Thirteen CPZ metabolites were identified, including 11 previously reported and 2 newly identified metabolites (M9 and M13), and 5 known metabolites were confirmed using authentic standards. The molecular structures and transformation pathways of CPZ metabolites were putatively deduced, which mainly included oxygenation, demethylation, dechlorination and carboxylation reactions. Quantitative analysis of CPZ and its metabolites were also performed, and CPZ sulfoxide had a higher content as an important characteristic metabolite. In addition, in-silico toxicity prediction reminded that some metabolites possess ecotoxicity and developmental toxicities similar to, or even higher, than CPZ. Moreover, metabolomics results indicated that CPZ exposure could cause metabolic disorder in the endogenous metabolome of grass carp.

Azophenyl Calix[4]arene Porous Organic Polymer for Extraction and Analysis of Triphenylmethane Dyes from Seafood

Porous organic polymers (POPs) based on calix[4]arene with a hydrophobic π-rich cavity and host-guest recognition properties exhibit a wide application range of molecular extraction and separation. However, it is still a challenge to improve the extraction and separation selectivity by exploring and seeking appropriate building blocks for the functionalization and pore size adjustment of calix[4]arene. Herein, an azophenyl calix[4]arene porous organic polymer (AC-POP) was proposed. By introducing an electron-rich cavity and adjusting the pore sizes of calix[4]arene, the AC-POP showed high selectivity extraction performance in triphenylmethane (TPM) dyes. The extraction mechanism was explored by adsorption thermodynamics study, density functional theory (DFT) calculation, and reduced density gradient (RDG) and electrostatic potential (ESP) analyses, which suggested that the selectivity adsorption of TPM dyes based on AC-POP was mainly the result of entropy driven by the hydrophobic effect. In addition, the noncovalent interactions including π-π stacking, van der Waals force, and electrostatic interaction were also important factors affecting the adsorption capacity of TPM dyes. Under optimal extraction conditions, the AC-POP possessed a maximum extraction amount of 95.3 mg·g-1 for Rhodamine B (RB), high enrichment factor of about 100, and excellent reusability more than 10 times. Then, an analytical method of TPM dyes with AC-POP as a solid-phase extractant combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) was established, which displayed excellent sensitivity with the limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) in the ranges of 0.004-0.35 and 0.016-1.16, respectively. The mean recoveries for TPM dyes ranged from 85.0 to 109.4% with an RSD of 0.48-9.45%. The proposed method was successfully applied to the analysis of the five TPM dyes in seafood matrix samples.

Comparison of the in vitro assays to investigate the hepatic metabolism of seven pesticides in Cyprinus carpio and Oncorhynchus mykiss

Liver S9 fractions from common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were incubated with seven pesticides (fenamidone, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, penflufen, spirotetramat, tebuconazole, tembotrione and trifloxystrobin) and the metabolic pathways of the applied chemicals were determined by HPLC-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Five of the seven pesticides (fenamidone, penflufen, spirotetramat, trifloxystrobin and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl) revealed a higher metabolic capacity of rainbow trout liver fractions compared to carp liver fractions. The other two pesticides (tebuconazole and tembotrione) showed a similar and marginal biotransformation for liver S9 fractions of both species. Furthermore, four compounds (penflufen, spirotetramat, tembotrione and tebuconazole) were incubated with cryo-preserved hepatocytes of rainbow trout showing additional conjugated metabolites compared to liver S9 fractions. The incubations were performed with concentrations of 1 and 10 μM for experiments with liver S9 fractions and 5 μM with hepatocytes for up to 120 (liver S9 fractions) or 240 min (hepatocytes). A set of positive controls was used to confirm the metabolic capability of the in vitro systems. The comparison of the in vitro results from hepatocyte assays of penflufen and tebuconazole with the data from corresponding in vivo studies performed according to OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) guideline 305 exhibited a similar metabolic behavior for these pesticides and emphasizes the reliability of the in vitro assays. Besides investigation of the metabolism of plant protection products for research purposes, inter-species comparison by in vitro assays and the use of PBTK modelling approaches will allow improved environmental and dietary risk assessments.

Tissue distribution, metabolism, and elimination of Victoria Pure Blue BO in rainbow trout: Main metabolite as an appropriate residue marker

Victoria Pure Blue BO is a dye that bears some therapeutic activity and that can be retrieved in effluent or may be used in aquaculture as a prohibited drug. In this study, the metabolism and tissue distribution during uptake and depuration of VPBO were investigated in order to propose a residue marker of illegal treatment in fish. The dye was administered to rainbow trout (oncorhynchus mykiss) for one day by water bath at a dose of 0.1 mg.L^-1. The concentrations of VPBO in all tissues increased rapidly during the treatment period, reaching a C_max of 567 ± 301 μg.L^-1 in plasma and 1846 μg kg^-1 ±517 for liver after 2 h. After placing the rainbow trout in a clean water bath for a 64 day-period of depuration, the concentrations in the tissues and plasma decreased to reach comparable levels for muscle and for skin after 33 days. The concentrations measured were still above the LOQ at 2.26 ± 0.48 μg kg^-1 for muscle and 2.85 ± 1.99 μg kg^-1 for skin at the end of the depuration period. The results indicated the existence of 14 phase I metabolites and one glucuronide conjugated metabolite. Non-compartmental analysis was applied to assess the pharmacokinetic parameters. The half-life in edible muscle of the main metabolite detected, deethyl-leuco-VPBO, was found to be 22.5 days compared to a half-life of 19.7 days for the parent VPBO. This study provides new information to predict a VPBO drug treatment of aquacultured species via a proposed new residue marker.

Discovery of novel (6S/12aS)-heptachpyridone capable of inhibiting thrombosis in vivo

The in vitro conversion of (1S,3S)-1-dimethoxylethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, (1S,3S)-DCCA, in rat plasma is monitored by HPLC-FT-ICR-MS. We show that the in vitro conversion of (1S,3S)-DCCA in rat plasma for 1 h leads to forming (6S/12aS)-bisdimethoxyethylheptachpyridone, reflecting intermolecular condensation of (1S,3S)-DCCA, and the in vitro conversion of (6S/12aS)-bisdimethoxyethylheptachpyridone in rat plasma for 1 h leads to forming (6S/12aS)-heptachpyridone, reflecting hydrolysis of (6S/12aS)-bisdimethoxyethylheptachpyridone. At a dose of 1.0 μmol/kg (6S/12aS)-heptachpyridone orally inhibits venous thrombosis and arterial thrombosis in vivo. Bleeding time, clotting time and international normalized ratio show that at this dose (6S/12aS)-heptachpyridone has no bleeding risk, does not lengthen clotting time and does not change the exogenous coagulation pathway. We also show that the reactions promoted by rat plasma are easy to practice by chemical synthesis. Thus our findings build a bridge across the in vivo conversion and the application.

In Vitro Metabolic Transformation of Pharmaceuticals by Hepatic S9 Fractions from Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Water from wastewater treatment plants contains concentrations of pharmaceutically active compounds as high as micrograms per liter, which can adversely affect fish health and behavior, and contaminate the food chain. Here, we tested the ability of the common carp hepatic S9 fraction to produce the main metabolites from citalopram, metoprolol, sertraline, and venlafaxine. Metabolism in fish S9 fractions was compared to that in sheep. The metabolism of citalopram was further studied in fish. Our results suggest a large difference in the rate of metabolites formation between fish and sheep. Fish hepatic S9 fractions do not show an ability to form metabolites from venlafaxine, which was also the case for sheep. Citalopram, metoprolol, and sertraline were metabolized by both fish and sheep S9. Citalopram showed concentration-dependent N-desmethylcitalopram formation with V_max = 1781 pmol/min/mg and K_m = 29.7 μM. The presence of ellipticine, a specific CYP1A inhibitor, in the incubations reduced the formation of N-desmethylcitalopram by 30-100% depending on the applied concentration. These findings suggest that CYP1A is the major enzyme contributing to the formation of N-desmethylcitalopram. In summary, the results from the present in vitro study suggest that common carp can form the major metabolites of citalopram, metoprolol, and sertraline.