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Mendo Diaz O, Tell A, Knobloch M, Canonica E, Walder C, Buser AM, Stalder U, Bigler L, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Fingerprinting of chlorinated paraffins and their transformation products in plastic consumer products. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 338:139552. [PMID: 37480948 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) can be classified according to their length as short-chain (SC, C10-C13), medium-chain (MC, C14-C17) and long-chain (LC, C ≥ 18) CPs. Technical CP-mixtures can contain a wide range of carbon- (C-, nC = 10-30) and chlorine- (Cl-, nCl = 3-19) homologues. CPs are high-production volume chemicals (>106 t/y). They are used as flame-retardants, plasticizers and coolant fluids. Due to the persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range environmental transport potential and adverse effects, SCCPs are regulated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention. Transformation of CPs can lead to the formation of unsaturated compounds such as chlorinated mono- (CO), di- (CdiO) and tri-olefins (CtriO). Such transformation reactions can occur at different stages of CP manipulation providing characteristic C-/Cl-homologue distributions. All this results in unique patterns that collectively create a fingerprint, which can be distinguished from CP-containing samples. Therefore, CP-fingerprinting can develop into a promising tool for future source apportionment studies and with it, the reduction of environmental burden of CPs and hazards to humans. Herein, CP-containing plastics were studied to establish fingerprints and develop this method. We analyzed four household items by reverse-phase liquid-chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer with an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source and an Orbitrap mass analyzer (RP-LC-APCI-Orbitrap-MS) operated at a resolution of 120000 (FWHM at m/z 200). MS-data of different CP-, CO-, CdiO- and CtriO-homologues were efficiently processed with an R-based automatic mass spectra evaluation routine (RASER). From the 16720 ions searched for, up to 4300 ions per sample were assigned to 340 C-/Cl-homologues of CPs and their transformation products. Specific fingerprints were deduced from the C-/Cl-homologues distributions, the carbon- (nC) and chlorine- (nCl) numbers and saturation degree. These fingerprints were compared with the ones obtained by a GC-ECNI-Orbitrap-MS method.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Mendo Diaz
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - A Tell
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - M Knobloch
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - E Canonica
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - C Walder
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - A M Buser
- Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, Monbijoustrasse 40, 3003, Bern, Switzerland
| | - U Stalder
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - L Bigler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - S Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - D Bleiner
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - N V Heeb
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Lyu L, Zhang S. Chlorinated Paraffin Pollution in the Marine Environment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11687-11703. [PMID: 37503949 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are ubiquitous in the environment due to their large-scale usage, persistence, and long-range atmospheric transport. The oceans are a critical environment where CPs transformation occurs. However, the broad impacts of CPs on the marine environment remain unclear. This review describes the sources, occurrence and transport pathways, environmental processes, and ecological effects of CPs in the marine environment. CPs are distributed in the global marine environment by riverine input, ocean currents, and long-range atmospheric transport from industrial areas. Environmental processes, such as the deposition of particle-bound compounds, leaching of plastics, and microbial degradation of CPs, are the critical drivers for regulating CPs' fate in water columns or sediment. Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of CPs in marine food webs may threaten marine ecosystem functions. To elucidate the biogeochemical processes and environmental impacts of CPs in marine environments, future work should clarify the burden and transformation process of CPs and reveal their ecological effects. The results would help readers clarify the current research status and future research directions of CPs in the marine environment and provide the scientific basis and theoretical foundations for the government to assess marine ecological risks of CPs and to make policies for pollution prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Lyu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 Xingangxi Road, Guangzhou 510301, Guangdong, China
| | - Si Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 Xingangxi Road, Guangzhou 510301, Guangdong, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, Guangdong, China
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Valderhaug S, Paškanová N, Tůma J, Herciková J, Eigner V, Liu H, Gorovoy A, Johansen JE, Gautun OR. Synthesis, identification, chiral separation and crystal structure of (3 R,4 R,7 S,8 S)-3,4,7,8-tetrachlorodecane and its stereoisomers. Heliyon 2023; 9:e16987. [PMID: 37346323 PMCID: PMC10279909 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a notoriously known class of compounds that stand amongst the most wide-spread persistent organic pollutants. Therefore, their reliable, repeatable, and reproducible quantitative analysis using well-defined reference standards is of utmost importance. In view of the increasing demand for constitutionally and stereochemically defined CP standards, we have synthesized a stereoisomeric mixture of 3,4,7,8-tetrachlorodecane. One stereoisomer - (3R,4R,7S,8S)-3,4,7,8-tetrachlorodecane was separated from the mixture, and enriched fractions of residual stereoisomers were achieved through crystallisation of the residual mother liquors. The molecular structure of the single isolated stereoisomer was confirmed through single-crystal X-ray crystallographic data. One fraction of 3,4,7,8-tetrachlorodecane stereoisomers was successfully separated on a chiral stationary phase using supercritical fluid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry (column: Chiral ART Amylose-C; mobile phase: CO2/MeOH (96/4 v/v) with 0.1% diethylamine). The reported separation of stereoisomers is unprecedented in CP analysis so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solveig Valderhaug
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
- Chiron AS, Stiklestadveien 1, NO-7041 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Natalie Paškanová
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, 16628, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Tůma
- Chiron AS, Stiklestadveien 1, NO-7041 Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, 16628, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Herciková
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, 16628, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Václav Eigner
- Department of Solid State Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, 16628, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Huiling Liu
- Chiron AS, Stiklestadveien 1, NO-7041 Trondheim, Norway
| | | | | | - Odd Reidar Gautun
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
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Chen L, Mai B, Luo X. Bioaccumulation and Biotransformation of Chlorinated Paraffins. TOXICS 2022; 10:778. [PMID: 36548610 PMCID: PMC9783579 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10120778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), a class of persistent, toxic, and bioaccumulated compounds, have received increasing attention for their environmental occurrence and ecological and human health risks worldwide in the past decades. Understanding the environmental behavior and fate of CPs faces a huge challenge owing to the extremely complex CP congeners. Consequently, the aims of the present study are to summarize and integrate the bioaccumulation and biotransformation of CPs, including the occurrence of CPs in biota, tissue distribution, biomagnification, and trophic transfer, and biotransformation of CPs in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates in detail. Biota samples collected in China showed higher CP concentrations than other regions, which is consistent with their huge production and usage. The lipid content is the major factor that determines the physical burden of CPs in tissues or organs. Regarding the bioaccumulation of CPs and their influence factors, inconsistent results were obtained. Biotransformation is an important reason for this variable. Some CP congeners are readily biodegradable in plants, animals, and microorganisms. Hydroxylation, dechlorination, chlorine rearrangement, and carbon chain decomposition are potential biotransformation pathways for the CP congeners. Knowledge of the influence of chain length, chlorination degree, constitution, and stereochemistry on the tissue distribution, bioaccumulation, and biotransformation is still scarce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liujun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Bixian Mai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xiaojun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
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Lyu L, He Y, Dong C, Li G, Wei G, Shao Z, Zhang S. Characterization of chlorinated paraffin-degrading bacteria from marine estuarine sediments. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 440:129699. [PMID: 35963094 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study explored chlorinated paraffin (CP)-degrading bacteria from the marine environment. Aequorivita, Denitromonas, Parvibaculum, Pseudomonas and Ignavibacterium were selected as the dominant genera after enrichment with chlorinated paraffin 52 (CP52) as the sole carbon source. Eight strains were identified as CP degraders, including Pseudomonas sp. NG6 and NF2, Erythrobacter sp. NG3, Castellaniella sp. NF6, Kordiimonas sp. NE3, Zunongwangia sp. NF12, Zunongwangia sp. NH1 and Chryseoglobus sp. NF13, and their degradation efficiencies ranged from 6.4% to 19.0%. In addition to Pseudomonas, the other six genera of bacteria were first reported to have the degradation ability of CPs. Bacterial categories, carbon-chain lengths and chlorination degrees were three crucial factors affecting the degradation efficiencies of CPs, with their influential ability of chlorinated degrees > bacterial categories > carbon-chain lengths. CP degradation can be performed by producing chlorinated alcohols, chlorinated olefins, dechlorinated alcohols and lower chlorinated CPs. This study will provide valuable information on CP biotransformation and targeted bacterial resources for studying the transformation processes of specific CPs in marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Lyu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Yufei He
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Chunming Dong
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Guizhen Li
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Guangshan Wei
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Zongze Shao
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Marine Genetic Resources, Xiamen 361005, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Genetic Resources, Xiamen 361005, China; Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519000, China.
| | - Si Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
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Knobloch MC, Mathis F, Diaz OM, Stalder U, Bigler L, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Selective and Fast Analysis of Chlorinated Paraffins in the Presence of Chlorinated Mono-, Di-, and Tri-Olefins with the R-Based Automated Spectra Evaluation Routine (RASER). Anal Chem 2022; 94:13777-13784. [PMID: 36169133 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are complex mixtures consisting of various C homologues (nC ≈ 10-30) and Cl homologues (nCl ≈ 2-20). Technical CP mixtures are produced on a large scale (>106 t/y) and are widely used such as plasticizers in plastic and coolants in metalwork. Since 2017, short-chain CPs (C10-C13) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention but longer-chain CPs are not regulated. Analysis of technical CP mixtures is challenging because they consist of hundreds of homologues and millions of constitutional isomers and stereoisomers. Furthermore, such mixtures can also contain byproducts and transformation products such as chlorinated olefins (COs). We applied a liquid-chromatography method coupled to an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization technique with a high-resolution mass detector (LC-APCI-Orbitrap-MS) to study CP and CO homologues in two plastic materials. Respective mass spectra can contain up to 23,000 signals from 1320 different C-Cl homologue classes. The R-based automated spectra evaluation routine (RASER) was developed to efficiently search for characteristic ions in these complex mass spectra. With it, the time needed to evaluate such spectra was reduced from weeks to hours, compared to manual data evaluation. Unique sets of homologue distributions could be obtained from the two plastic materials. CPs were found together with their transformation products, the chlorinated mono-olefins (COs), di-olefins (CdiOs), and tri-olefins (CtriOs) in both plastic materials. Based on these examples, it can be shown that RASER is an efficient and selective tool for evaluating high-resolution mass spectra of CP mixtures containing hundreds of homologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Oscar Mendo Diaz
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Urs Stalder
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Bigler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Darnerud PO, Bergman Å. Critical review on disposition of chlorinated paraffins in animals and humans. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 163:107195. [PMID: 35447436 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Even though the chlorinated paraffins (CPs) have been on the environmental pollution agenda throughout the last 50 years it is a class of chemicals that only now is discussed in terms of an emerging issue with extensive annual publication rates. Major reviews on CPs have been produced, but a deeper understanding of the chemical fate of CPs, including formation of metabolites in animals and humans, is still missing. Thus, the present review aims to critically compile our present knowledge on the disposition, i.e. Adsorption, Disposition, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) of CPs in biota and to identify research needs. We conclude that CPs could be effectively absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract (GI) tract, and probably also from the lungs, and transported to various organs. A biphasic elimination is suggested, with a rapid initial phase followed by a terminal phase, the latter (e.g., fat tissues) covering half-lives of weeks and months. CPs are metabolized in the liver and excreted mainly via the bile and faeces, and the metabolic rate and type of metabolites are dependent on chlorine content and chain length. Results that strengthen CP metabolism are in vivo findings of phase II metabolites in bile, and CP degradation to carbon fragments in experimental animals. Still the metabolic transformations of CPs are poorly studied, and no metabolic scheme has yet been presented. Further, toxicokinetic mass balance calculations suggest that a large part of a given dose (not found as parent compound) is transformation products of CPs, and in vitro metabolism studies present numerous CP metabolites (e.g., chloroalkenes, chlorinated ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids).
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Ola Darnerud
- Department of Organismal Biology, Environmental Toxicology, Norbyvägen 18A, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Åke Bergman
- Department of Environmental Science (ACES), Stockholm University, SE-106 92 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Science and Technology, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden; College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
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8
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Knobloch MC, Sprengel J, Mathis F, Haag R, Kern S, Bleiner D, Vetter W, Heeb NV. Chemical synthesis and characterization of single-chain C 18-chloroparaffin materials with defined degrees of chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132938. [PMID: 34798110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Technical chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are produced via radical chlorination of n-alkane feedstocks with different carbon chain-lengths (∼C10-C30). Short-chain CPs (SCCPs, C10-C13) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention. This regulation has induced a shift to use longer-chain CPs as substitutes. Consequently, medium-chain (MCCPs, C14-C17) and long-chain (LCCPs, C>17) CPs have become dominant homologues in recent environmental samples. However, no suitable LCCP-standard materials are available. Herein, we report on the chemical synthesis of single-chain C18-CP-materials, starting with a pure n-alkane and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2). Fractionation of the crude product by normal-phase liquid-chromatography and pooling of suitable fractions yielded in four C18-CP-materials with different chlorination degrees (mCl,EA = 39-52%). In addition, polar side-products, tentatively identified as sulfite-, sulfate- and bis-sulfate-diesters, were separated from CPs. The new single-chain materials were characterized by LC-MS, 1H-NMR and EA. LC-MS provided Relative retention times for different C18-CP homologues and side-products. Mathematical deconvolution of full-scan mass spectra revealed the presence of chloroparaffins (57-93%) and chloroolefins (COs, 7-26%) in the four single-chain C18-CP-materials. Homologue distributions and chlorination degrees were deduced for CPs and COs. 1H-NMR revealed chemical shift ranges of mono-chlorinated (δ = 3.2-5.3 ppm) and non-chlorinated (δ = 1.0-3.2 ppm) hydrocarbon moieties. The synthesized C18-single-chain standard materials and respective spectroscopic data are useful to identify and quantify LCCPs in various materials and environmental samples. CP- and CO-distributions resemble the ones of existing SCCP and MCCP reference materials and technical mixtures. Furthermore, these materials now allow specific studies on the environmental fate and the transformation of long-chain chloroparaffins and chloroolefins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Regula Haag
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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9
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Knobloch MC, Mathis F, Fleischmann T, Kohler HPE, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Enzymatic synthesis and formation kinetics of mono- and di-hydroxylated chlorinated paraffins with the bacterial dehalogenase LinB from Sphingobium indicum. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132939. [PMID: 34800506 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Transformation studies of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) and the effects of CP transformation products on humans, biota and environment are rare. The focus here is on hydroxylation reactions. As for polyhalogenated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in general, hydroxylation reactions convert lipophilic material to more polar compounds with increased mobility. We investigated the in-vitro transformation of single-chain CP-mixtures to hydroxylated products with the dehalogenase LinB from Sphingobium indicum. C11-, C12- and C13-single-chain CP-homologues were exposed to LinB and mono-hydroxylated (CP-ols) and di-hydroxylated (CP-diols) transformation products were formed. Liquid-chromatography coupled to mass-spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to detect hydroxylated products and to separate them from the starting material. The presented data can be used to identify these CP-ol and CP-diol homologues in other samples. Hydroxylated products had lower chlorination degrees (nCl) than respective CP-starting-materials. Reactive and persistent CP-material was found in each homologue group. Reactive material is converted within hours by LinB, while more persistent CPs are transformed within days. Homologue-specific kinetic models were established to simulate the stepwise hydroxylation of persistent CPs to mono- and di-hydroxylated products. First-order rate constants for the formation of CP-ols (k1) and CP-diols (k2) were deduced for different homologues. Lower-chlorinated CP-ols did not accumulate to large extent and were transformed quickly to CP-diols, while higher-chlorinated CP-ols and -diols both accumulated. By enzymatic transformation of single-chain CPs with LinB, we synthesized unique sets of mono- and di-hydroxylated materials, which can be used as analytical standards and as starting materials for metabolic, toxicity and environmental fate studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Fleischmann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Peter E Kohler
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Fernandes AR, Falandysz J, Yuan B. Widening knowledge horizons on legacy POPs: Chlorinated paraffins and polychlorinated naphthalenes. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 289:133131. [PMID: 34863731 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alwyn R Fernandes
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.
| | - Jerzy Falandysz
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Toxicology, 1 Muszyńskiego Street, 90-151, Lódź, Poland.
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden.
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