Mass spectrometry—A versatile tool for characterising the lipid environment of membrane protein assemblies

Lipid peroxidation: Reactive carbonyl species, protein/DNA adducts, and signaling switches in oxidative stress and cancer

Under the exposure of lipids to reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation proceeds non-enzymatically and generates an extremely heterogeneous mixture of reactive carbonyl species (RCS). Among them, HNE, HHE, MDA, methylglyoxal, glyoxal, and acrolein are the most studied and/or abundant ones. Over the last decades, significant progress has been achieved in understanding mechanisms of RCS generation, protein/DNA adduct formation, and their identification and quantification in biological samples. In our review, we critically discuss the advancements in understanding the roles of RCS-induced protein/DNA modifications in signaling switches to provide adaptive cell response under physiological and oxidative stress conditions. At non-toxic concentrations, RCS modify susceptible Cys residue in c-Src to activate MAPK signaling and Cys, Lys, and His residues in PTEN to cause its reversible inactivation, thereby stimulating PI3K/PKB(Akt) pathway. RCS toxic concentrations cause irreversible Cys modifications in Keap1 and IKKβ followed by stabilization of Nrf2 and activation of NF-κB, respectively, for their nuclear translocation and antioxidant gene expression. Dysregulation of these mechanisms causes diseases including cancer. Alterations in RCS, RCS detoxifying enzymes, RCS-modified protein/DNA adducts, and signaling pathways have been implicated in various cancer types.

Deciphering Solution and Gas-Phase Interactions between Peptides and Lipids by Native Mass Spectrometry

Many biological processes depend on the interactions between proteins and lipids. Accordingly, the analysis of protein-lipid complexes has become increasingly important. Native mass spectrometry is often used to identify and characterize specific protein-lipid interactions. However, it requires the transfer of the analytes into the gas phase, where electrostatic interactions are enhanced and hydrophobic interactions do not exist. Accordingly, the question remains whether interactions that are observed in the gas phase accurately reflect interactions that are formed in solution. Here, we systematically explore noncovalent interactions between the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 and glycerophospholipids containing different headgroups or varying in fatty acyl chain length. We observe differences in peak intensities for different peptide-lipid complexes, as well as their relative binding strength in the gas phase. Accordingly, we found that ion intensities and gas-phase stability correlate well for complexes formed by electrostatic interactions. Probing hydrophobic interactions by varying the length of fatty acyl chains, we detected differences in ion intensities based on hydrophobic interactions formed in solution. The relative binding strength of these peptide-lipid complexes revealed only minor differences originating from van der Waals interactions and different binding modes of lipid headgroups in solution. In summary, our results demonstrate that hydrophobic interactions are reflected by ion intensities, while electrostatic interactions, including van der Waals interactions, determine the gas-phase stability of complexes.

Shake It Off! Acoustic Manipulation of Lipid Vesicles for Mass Spectrometric Analysis

Analyzing lipid assemblies, including liposomes and extracellular vesicles (EVs), is challenging due to their size, diverse composition, and tendency to aggregate. Such vesicles form with a simple phospholipid bilayer membrane, and they play important roles in drug discovery and delivery. The use of mass spectrometry (MS) allows for broad analysis of lipids from different classes; however, their release from the higher order structural aggregates is typically achieved by chemical means. Mechanical disruption by high frequency surface acoustic waves (SAW) is presented as an appealing alternative to preparing lipid vesicles for MS sampling. In this work, SAWs used to disrupt liposomes allow for the direct analysis of their constituent lipids by employing SAW nebulization with corona discharge (CD) ionization. We explore the effects of duration, frequency, and incorporation of nonpolar lipids, including cholesterol, on the SAW's ability to disrupt the liposome. We also report on the successful MS analysis of liposome-derived lipids along with cytochrome C in solution, thus demonstrating applications to aqueous samples and native MS conditions.

Exploring TRPC3 Interaction with Cholesterol through Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Transient receptor potential canonical 3 (TRPC3) channel belongs to the superfamily of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels which mediate Ca2+ influx into the cell. These channels constitute essential elements of cellular signalling and have been implicated in a wide range of diseases. TRPC3 is primarily gated by lipids and its surface expression has been shown to be dependent on cholesterol, yet a comprehensive exploration of its interaction with this lipid has thus far not emerged. Here, through 80 µs of coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, we show that cholesterol interacts with multiple elements of the transmembrane machinery of TRPC3. Through our approach, we identify an annular binding site for cholesterol on the pre-S1 helix and a non-annular site at the interface between the voltage-sensor-like domain and pore domains. Here, cholesterol interacts with exposed polar residues and possibly acts to stabilise the domain interface.

LILBID-MS: using lasers to shed light on biomolecular architectures

Structural Biology has moved beyond the aim of simply identifying the components of a cellular subsystem towards analysing the dynamics and interactions of multiple players within a cell. This focal shift comes with additional requirements for the analytical tools used to investigate these systems of increased size and complexity, such as Native Mass Spectrometry, which has always been an important tool for structural biology. Scientific advance and recent developments, such as new ways to mimic a cell membrane for a membrane protein, have caused established methods to struggle to keep up with the increased demands. In this review, we summarize the possibilities, which Laser Induced Liquid Bead Ion Desorption (LILBID) mass spectrometry offers with regard to the challenges of modern structural biology, like increasingly complex sample composition, novel membrane mimics and advanced structural analysis, including next neighbor relations and the dynamics of complex formation.

Functional characterization of Legionella pneumophila Cu+ transport ATPase. The activation by Cu+ and ATP

Cu⁺-ATPases are integral membrane proteins belonging to the IB subfamily of the P-type ATPases that couple Cu⁺ transport to the hydrolysis of ATP. As some structural and functional particularities arise for Cu⁺-ATPases, several authors suggest that some of the reaction steps of the Albers-Post model postulated for other P-ATPases may be different. In this work we describe a functional characterization of Legionella pneumophila Cu⁺-ATPase (LpCopA), the first P_IB-ATPase whose structure was determined by X-ray crystallography. Cu⁺-ATPase activity of the enzyme presents a maximum at ∼37 °C and pH 6.6-6.8. Phospholipids enhance LpCopA Cu⁺-ATPase activity in a non-essential mode where optimal activity is achieved at an asolectin molar fraction of 0.15 and an amphiphile-protein ratio of ~30,000. As described for other P-ATPases, Mg²⁺ acts as an essential activator. Furthermore, Cu⁺-ATPase activity dependence on [Cu⁺] and [ATP] can both be described by a sum of two hyperbolic functions. Based on that, and the [Cu⁺] and [ATP] dependencies of the best fitting parameters of the hyperbolae pointed above, we propose a minimal reaction scheme for the catalytic mechanism that shares the basic reaction steps of the Albers-Post model for P-type ATPases. The reaction scheme postulated contemplates two different binding affinities for a single ATP (apparent affinities of 0.66 and 550 μM at [Cu⁺] → ∞) and binding of at least 2 Cu⁺ with different affinities as well (apparent affinities of 1.4 and 102.5 μM at [ATP] → ∞).

Insights into lipid-protein interactions from computer simulations

Lipid-protein interactions play an important direct role in the function of many membrane proteins. We argue they are key players in membrane structure, modulate membrane proteins in more subtle ways than direct binding, and are important for understanding the mechanism of classes of hydrophobic drugs. By directly comparing membrane proteins from different families in the same, complex lipid mixture, we found a unique lipid environment for every protein. Extending this work, we identified both differences and similarities in the lipid environment of GPCRs, dependent on which family they belong to and in some cases their conformational state, with particular emphasis on the distribution of cholesterol. More recently, we have been studying modes of coupling between protein conformation and local membrane properties using model proteins. In more applied approaches, we have used similar methods to investigate specific hypotheses on interactions of lipid and lipid-like molecules with ion channels. We conclude this perspective with some considerations for future work, including a new more sophisticated coarse-grained force field (Martini 3), an interactive visual exploration framework, and opportunities to improve sampling.

The Membrane Proteome of Spores and Vegetative Cells of the Food-Borne Pathogen Bacillus cereus

Membrane proteins are fascinating since they play an important role in diverse cellular functions and constitute many drug targets. Membrane proteins are challenging to analyze. The spore, the most resistant form of known life, harbors a compressed inner membrane. This membrane acts not only as a barrier for undesired molecules but also as a scaffold for proteins involved in signal transduction and the transport of metabolites during spore germination and subsequent vegetative growth. In this study, we adapted a membrane enrichment method to study the membrane proteome of spores and cells of the food-borne pathogen Bacillus cereus using quantitative proteomics. Using bioinformatics filtering we identify and quantify 498 vegetative cell membrane proteins and 244 spore inner membrane proteins. Comparison of vegetative and spore membrane proteins showed there were 54 spore membrane-specific and 308 cell membrane-specific proteins. Functional characterization of these proteins showed that the cell membrane proteome has a far larger number of transporters, receptors and proteins related to cell division and motility. This was also reflected in the much higher expression level of many of these proteins in the cellular membrane for those proteins that were in common with the spore inner membrane. The spore inner membrane had specific expression of several germinant receptors and spore-specific proteins, but also seemed to show a preference towards the use of simple carbohydrates like glucose and fructose owing to only expressing transporters for these. These results show the differences in membrane proteome composition and show us the specific proteins necessary in the inner membrane of a dormant spore of this toxigenic spore-forming bacterium to survive adverse conditions.

Propagating Error through Traveling-Wave Ion Mobility Calibration

Native mass spectrometry (MS) is used to elucidate the stoichiometry of protein complexes and quantify binding interactions by maintaining native-like, noncovalent interactions in the gas phase. However, ionization forces proteins into specific conformations, losing the solution-phase dynamics associated with solvated protein structures. Comparison of gas-phase structures to those in solution, or to other gas-phase ion populations, has many biological implications. For one, analyzing the variety of conformations that are maintained in the gas-phase can provide insight into a protein's solution-phase energy landscape. The gas-phase conformations of proteins and complexes can be investigated using ion mobility (IM) spectrometry. Specifically, drift tube (DT)-IM utilizes uniform electric fields to propel a population of gas-phase ions through a region containing a neutral gas. By measuring the mobility (K) of gas-phase ions, users are able to calculate an average momentum transfer cross section (^DTCCS), which provides structural information on the ion. Conversely, in traveling-wave ion mobility spectrometry (TWIMS), ^TWCCS values cannot be derived directly from an ion's mobility but must be determined following calibration. Though the required calibration adds uncertainty, it is common to report only an average and standard deviation of the calculated ^TWCCS, accounting for uncertainty associated with replicate measurements, which is a fraction of the overall uncertainty. Herein, we calibrate a TWIMS instrument and derive ^TWCCS_N2 and ^TWCCS_N2→He values for four proteins: cytochrome c, ubiquitin, apo-myoglobin, and holo-myoglobin. We show that compared to reporting only the standard deviation of ^TWCCS, propagating error through the calibration results in a significant increase in the number of calculated ^TWCCS values that agree within experimental error with literature values (^DTCCS). Incorporating this additional uncertainty provides a more thorough assessment of a protein ion's gas-phase conformations, enabling the structures sampled by native IM-MS to be compared against other reported structures, both experimental and computational.

Dynamic lipid aptamers: non-polymeric chemical path to early life

A widespread dogma asserts that life could not have emerged without biopolymers - RNA and proteins. However, the widely acknowledged implausibility of a spontaneous appearance and proliferation of these complex molecules in primordial messy chemistry casts doubt on this scenario. A proposed alternative is "Lipid-First", based on the evidence that lipid assemblies may spontaneously emerge in heterogeneous environments, and are shown to undergo growth and fission, and to portray autocatalytic self-copying. What seems undecided is whether lipid assemblies have protein-like capacities for stereospecific interactions, a sine qua non of life processes. This Viewpoint aims to alleviate such doubts, pointing to growing experimental evidence that lipid aggregates possess dynamic surface configurations capable of stereospecific molecular recognition. Such findings help support a possible key role of lipids in seeding life's origin.

Multimodal Label-Free Monitoring of Adipogenic Stem Cell Differentiation Using Endogenous Optical Biomarkers

Stem cell-based therapies carry significant promise for treating human diseases. However, clinical translation of stem cell transplants for effective treatment requires precise non-destructive evaluation of the purity of stem cells with high sensitivity (<0.001% of the number of cells). Here, a novel methodology using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) combined with spectral angle mapping-based machine learning analysis is reported to distinguish differentiating human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) from control stem cells. The spectral signature of adipogenesis generated by the HSI method enables identifying differentiated cells at single-cell resolution. The label-free HSI method is compared with the standard techniques such as Oil Red O staining, fluorescence microscopy, and qPCR that are routinely used to evaluate adipogenic differentiation of hASCs. HSI is successfully used to assess the abundance of adipocytes derived from transplanted cells in a transgenic mice model. Further, Raman microscopy and multiphoton-based metabolic imaging is performed to provide complementary information for the functional imaging of the hASCs. Finally, the HSI method is validated using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry imaging of the stem cells. The study presented here demonstrates that multimodal imaging methods enable label-free identification of stem cell differentiation with high spatial and chemical resolution.

Mass spectrometry informs the structure and dynamics of membrane proteins involved in lipid and drug transport

Membrane proteins are important macromolecules that play crucial roles in many cellular and physiological processes. Over the past two decades, the use of mass spectrometry as a biophysical tool to characterise membrane proteins has grown steadily. By capturing these dynamic complexes in the gas phase, many unknown small molecule interactions have been revealed. One particular application of this research has been the focus on antibiotic resistance with considerable efforts being made to understand underlying mechanisms. Here we review recent advances in the application of mass spectrometry that have yielded both structural and dynamic information on the interactions of antibiotics with proteins involved in bacterial cell envelope biogenesis and drug efflux.

Current Methods for Detecting Cell Membrane Transient Interactions

Short-lived cell membrane complexes play a key role in regulating cell signaling and communication. Many of these complexes are formed based on low-affinity and transient interactions among various lipids and proteins. New techniques have emerged to study these previously overlooked membrane transient interactions. Exciting functions of these transient interactions have been discovered in cellular events such as immune signaling, host-pathogen interactions, and diseases such as cancer. In this review, we have summarized current experimental methods that allow us to detect and analyze short-lived cell membrane protein-protein, lipid-protein, and lipid-lipid interactions. These methods can provide useful information about the strengths, kinetics, and/or spatial patterns of membrane transient interactions. However, each method also has its own limitations. We hope this review can be used as a guideline to help the audience to choose proper approaches for studying membrane transient interactions in different membrane trafficking and cell signaling events.

Nanodiscs and Mass Spectrometry: Making Membranes Fly

Cells are surrounded by a protective lipid bilayer membrane, and membrane proteins in the bilayer control the flow of chemicals, information, and energy across this barrier. Many therapeutics target membrane proteins, and some directly target the lipid membrane itself. However, interactions within biological membranes are challenging to study due to their heterogeneity and insolubility. Mass spectrometry (MS) has become a powerful technique for studying membrane proteins, especially how membrane proteins interact with their surrounding lipid environment. Although detergent micelles are the most common membrane mimetic, nanodiscs are emerging as a promising platform for MS. Nanodiscs, nanoscale lipid bilayers encircled by two scaffold proteins, provide a controllable lipid bilayer for solubilizing membrane proteins. This Young Scientist Perspective focuses on native MS of intact nanodiscs and highlights the unique experiments enabled by making membranes fly, including studying membrane protein-lipid interactions and exploring the specificity of fragile transmembrane peptide complexes. It will also explore current challenges and future perspectives for interfacing nanodiscs with MS.

Native mass spectrometry-A valuable tool in structural biology

Proteins and the complexes they form with their ligands are the players of cellular action. Their function is directly linked with their structure making the structural analysis of protein-ligand complexes essential. Classical techniques of structural biology include X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and recently distinguished cryo-electron microscopy. However, protein-ligand complexes are often dynamic and heterogeneous and consequently challenging for these techniques. Alternative approaches are therefore needed and gained importance during the last decades. One alternative is native mass spectrometry, which is the analysis of intact protein complexes in the gas phase. To achieve this, sample preparation and instrument conditions have to be optimised. Native mass spectrometry then reveals stoichiometry, protein interactions and topology of protein assemblies. Advanced techniques such as ion mobility and high-resolution mass spectrometry further add to the range of applications and deliver information on shape and microheterogeneity of the complexes. In this tutorial, we explain the basics of native mass spectrometry including sample requirements, instrument modifications and interpretation of native mass spectra. We further discuss the developments of native mass spectrometry and provide example spectra and applications.

Lipids: chemical tools for their synthesis, modification, and analysis

Lipids remain one of the most enigmatic classes of biological molecules. Whereas lipids are well known to form basic units of membrane structure and energy storage, deciphering the exact roles and biological interactions of distinct lipid species has proven elusive. How these building blocks are synthesized, trafficked, and stored are also questions that require closer inspection. This tutorial review covers recent advances on the preparation, derivatization, and analysis of lipids. In particular, we describe several chemical approaches that form part of a powerful toolbox for controlling and characterizing lipid structure. We believe these tools will be helpful in numerous applications, including the study of lipid-protein interactions and the development of novel drug delivery systems.

Measuring Remodeling of the Lipid Environment Surrounding Membrane Proteins with Lipid Exchange and Native Mass Spectrometry

Due to their crucial biochemical roles, membrane proteins are important drug targets. Although it is clear that lipids can influence membrane protein function, the chemistry of lipid binding remains difficult to study because protein-lipid interactions are polydisperse, competitive, and transient. Furthermore, detergents, which are often used to solubilize membrane proteins in micelles, may disrupt lipid interactions that occur in bilayers. Here, we present two new approaches to quantify protein-lipid interactions in bilayers and understand how membrane proteins remodel their surrounding lipid environment. First, we used mass spectrometry (MS) to measure the exchange of lipids between lipoprotein nanodiscs with and without an embedded membrane protein. Shifts in the lipid distribution toward the membrane protein nanodiscs revealed lipid binding, and titrations allowed measurement of the optimal lipid composition for the membrane protein. Second, we used native or nondenaturing MS to ionize membrane protein nanodiscs with heterogeneous lipids. Ejecting the membrane protein complex with bound lipids in the mass spectrometer revealed enrichment of specific lipids around the membrane protein. Both new approaches showed that the E. coli ammonium transporter AmtB prefers phosphatidylglycerol lipids overall but has a minor affinity for phosphatidylcholine lipids.

Expression and Purification of Protease-Activated Receptor 4 (PAR4) and Analysis with Histidine Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange

Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are G-protein-coupled receptors that are activated by proteolysis of the N-terminus, which exposes a tethered ligand that interacts with the receptor. Numerous studies have focused on the signaling pathways mediated by PARs. However, the structural basis for initiation of these pathways is unknown. Here, we describe a strategy for the expression and purification of PAR4. This is the first PAR family member to be isolated without stabilizing modifications for biophysical studies. We monitored PAR4 activation with histidine hydrogen-deuterium exchange. PAR4 has nine histidines that are spaced throughout the protein, allowing a global view of solvent accessible and nonaccessible regions. Peptides containing each of the nine His residues were used to determine the t_1/2 for each His residue in apo or thrombin-activated PAR4. The thrombin-cleaved PAR4 exhibited a 2-fold increase (p > 0.01) in t_1/2 values observed for four histidine residues (His¹⁸⁰, His²²⁹, His²⁴⁰, and His³⁸⁰), demonstrating that these regions have decreased solvent accessibility upon thrombin treatment. In agreement, thrombin-cleaved PAR4 also was resistant to thermolysin digestion. In contrast, the rate of thermolysin proteolysis following stimulation with the PAR4 activation peptide was the same as that of unstimulated PAR4. Further analysis showed the C-terminus is protected in thrombin-activated PAR4 compared to uncleaved or agonist peptide-treated PAR4. The studies described here are the first to examine the tethered ligand activation mechanism for a PAR family member biophysically and shed light on the overall conformational changes that follow activation of PARs by a protease.

Imidazole Derivatives Improve Charge Reduction and Stabilization for Native Mass Spectrometry

Noncovalent interactions between biomolecules are critical to their activity. Native mass spectrometry (MS) has enabled characterization of these interactions by preserving noncovalent assemblies for mass analysis, including protein-ligand and protein-protein complexes for a wide range of soluble and membrane proteins. Recent advances in native MS of lipoprotein nanodiscs have also allowed characterization of antimicrobial peptides and membrane proteins embedded in intact lipid bilayers. However, conventional native electrospray ionization (ESI) can disrupt labile interactions. To stabilize macromolecular complexes for native MS, charge reducing reagents can be added to the solution prior to ESI, such as triethylamine, trimethylamine oxide, and imidazole. Lowering the charge acquired during ESI reduces Coulombic repulsion that leads to dissociation, and charge reduction reagents may also lower the internal energy of the ions through evaporative cooling. Here, we tested a range of imidazole derivatives to discover improved charge reducing reagents and to determine how their chemical properties influence charge reduction efficacy. We measured their effects on a soluble protein complex, a membrane protein complex in detergent, and lipoprotein nanodiscs with and without embedded peptides, and used computational chemistry to understand the observed charge-reduction behavior. Together, our data revealed that hydrophobic substituents at the 2 position on imidazole can significantly improve both charge reduction and gas-phase stability over existing reagents. These new imidazole derivatives will be immediately beneficial for a range of native MS applications and provide chemical principles to guide development of novel charge reducing reagents.