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Lan Y, Chen X, Yang Z. Quantification of Nitric Oxide in Single Cells Using the Single-Probe Mass Spectrometry Technique. Anal Chem 2023; 95:18871-18879. [PMID: 38092461 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a small molecule that plays important roles in biological systems and human diseases. The abundance of intracellular NO is tightly related to numerous biological processes. Due to cell heterogeneity, the intracellular NO amounts significantly vary from cell to cell, and therefore, any meaningful studies need to be conducted at the single-cell level. However, measuring NO in single cells is very challenging, primarily due to the extremely small size of single cells and reactive nature of NO. In the current studies, the quantitative reaction between NO and amlodipine, a compound containing the Hantzsch ester group, was performed in live cells. The product dehydro amlodipine was then detected by the Single-probe single-cell mass spectrometry technique to quantify NO in single cells. The experimental results indicated heterogeneous distributions of intracellular NO amounts in single cells with the existence of subpopulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunpeng Lan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Xingxiu Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Zhibo Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, 101 Stephenson Parkway, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
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2
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Simultaneous determination of NO released inside and outside cells at the single-cell level using CE-LIF. ANAL SCI 2022; 38:913-916. [DOI: 10.1007/s44211-022-00105-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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3
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Yao HW, Guo XF, Wang H. Simultaneous Quantitation of Intra- and Extracellular Nitric Oxide in Single Macrophage RAW 264.7 Cells by Capillary Electrophoresis with Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection. Anal Chem 2020; 92:11904-11911. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Wen Yao
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
- School of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan 430065, China
| | - Xiao-Feng Guo
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hong Wang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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4
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Vickerman BM, Anttila MM, Petersen BV, Allbritton NL, Lawrence DS. Design and Application of Sensors for Chemical Cytometry. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1741-1751. [PMID: 29376326 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b01009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The bulk cell population response to a stimulus, be it a growth factor or a cytotoxic agent, neglects the cell-to-cell variability that can serve as a friend or as a foe in human biology. Biochemical variations among closely related cells furnish the basis for the adaptability of the immune system but also act as the root cause of resistance to chemotherapy by tumors. Consequently, the ability to probe for the presence of key biochemical variables at the single-cell level is now recognized to be of significant biological and biomedical impact. Chemical cytometry has emerged as an ultrasensitive single-cell platform with the flexibility to measure an array of cellular components, ranging from metabolite concentrations to enzyme activities. We briefly review the various chemical cytometry strategies, including recent advances in reporter design, probe and metabolite separation, and detection instrumentation. We also describe strategies for improving intracellular delivery, biochemical specificity, metabolic stability, and detection sensitivity of probes. Recent applications of these strategies to small molecules, lipids, proteins, and other analytes are discussed. Finally, we assess the current scope and limitations of chemical cytometry and discuss areas for future development to meet the needs of single-cell research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna M. Vickerman
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Matthew M. Anttila
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Brae V. Petersen
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Nancy L. Allbritton
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, and North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - David S. Lawrence
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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5
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A compact and low-cost laser induced fluorescence detector with silicon based photodetector assembly for capillary flow systems. Talanta 2018; 182:279-284. [PMID: 29501153 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.01.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A compact and low-cost laser induced fluorescence (LIF) detector based on confocal structure for capillary flow systems was developed and applied for analysis of Her2 protein on single Hela cells. A low-power and low-cost 450 nm laser diode (LD) instead of a high quality laser was used as excitation light source. A compact optical design together with shortened optical path length improved the optical efficiency and detection sensitivity. A superior silicon based photodetector assembly was used for fluorescence detection instead of a photomultiplier (PMT). The limit of detection (LOD) for fluorescein sodium was 3 × 10-12 M or 165 fluorescein molecules in detection volume measured on a homemade capillary electroosmotic driven (EOD)-LIF system, which was similar to commercial LIFs. Compared to commercial LIFs, the whole volume of our LIF was reduced to 1/2-1/3, and the cost was less than 1/3 of them.
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6
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Li L, Li Q, Chen P, Li Z, Chen Z, Tang B. Consecutive Gated Injection-Based Microchip Electrophoresis for Simultaneous Quantitation of Superoxide Anion and Nitric Oxide in Single PC-12 Cells. Anal Chem 2015; 88:930-6. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Li
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
| | - Qingling Li
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
| | - Peilin Chen
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
| | - Zhongyi Li
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
| | - Zhenzhen Chen
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
| | - Bo Tang
- College of Chemistry,
Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center
of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong,
Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry
of Education, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, P.R. China
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7
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Chen JB, Zhang HX, Guo XF, Wang H, Zhang HS. Boron-chelating fluorescent probe (BOPB) in the red region combined with CE-LIF for the detection of NO in mice liver. Electrophoresis 2015; 37:609-15. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Bo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry; Wuhan University; Wuhan P. R. China
- Institute of Chemical Materials; CAEP; Mianyang P. R. China
| | - Hui-Xian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry; Wuhan University; Wuhan P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Feng Guo
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry; Wuhan University; Wuhan P. R. China
| | - Hong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry; Wuhan University; Wuhan P. R. China
| | - Hua-Shan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry; Wuhan University; Wuhan P. R. China
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8
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Li C, Wang Z, Jones AD. Chemical imaging of trichome specialized metabolites using contact printing and laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 406:171-82. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7444-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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9
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Metto EC, Evans K, Barney P, Culbertson AH, Gunasekara DB, Caruso G, Hulvey MK, da Silva JAF, Lunte SM, Culbertson CT. An integrated microfluidic device for monitoring changes in nitric oxide production in single T-lymphocyte (Jurkat) cells. Anal Chem 2013; 85:10188-95. [PMID: 24010877 PMCID: PMC3951964 DOI: 10.1021/ac401665u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A considerable amount of attention has been focused on the analysis of single cells in an effort to better understand cell heterogeneity in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Although microfluidic devices have several advantages for single cell analysis, few papers have actually demonstrated the ability of these devices to monitor chemical changes in perturbed biological systems. In this paper, a new microfluidic channel manifold is described that integrates cell transport, lysis, injection, electrophoretic separation, and fluorescence detection into a single device, making it possible to analyze individual cells at a rate of 10 cells/min in an automated fashion. The system was employed to measure nitric oxide (NO) production in single T-lymphocytes (Jurkat cells) using a fluorescent marker, 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate (DAF-FM DA). The cells were also labeled with 6-carboxyfluorescein diacetate (6-CFDA) as an internal standard. The NO production by control cells was compared to that of cells stimulated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is known to cause the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in immune-type cells. Statistical analysis of the resulting electropherograms from a population of cells indicated a 2-fold increase in NO production in the induced cells. These results compare nicely to a recently published bulk cell analysis of NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eve C. Metto
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Karsten Evans
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Patrick Barney
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Anne H. Culbertson
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Dulan B. Gunasekara
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
- Department of Chemical Science, Section of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Catania, Italy
| | - Matthew K. Hulvey
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
- Akermin, Inc. St. Louis, Missouri 63132, USA
| | - Jose Alberto Fracassi da Silva
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
- Institute of Chemistry, State University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Bioanalítica, INCTBio
| | - Susan M. Lunte
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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10
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Abstract
Cells are extraordinarily complex, containing thousands of different analytes with concentrations spanning at least nine orders of magnitude. Analyzing single cells instead of tissue homogenates provides unique insights into cell-to-cell heterogeneity and aids in distinguishing normal cells from pathological ones. The high sensitivity and low sample consumption of capillary and on-chip electrophoresis, when integrated with fluorescence, electrochemical, and mass spectrometric detection methods, offer an ideal toolset for examining single cells and even subcellular organelles; however, the isolation and loading of such small samples into these devices is challenging. Recent advances have addressed this issue by interfacing a variety of enhanced mechanical, microfluidic, and optical sampling techniques to capillary and on-chip electrophoresis instruments for single-cell analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Cecala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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11
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Chen Z, Li Q, Sun Q, Chen H, Wang X, Li N, Yin M, Xie Y, Li H, Tang B. Simultaneous Determination of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species in Mitochondrial Compartments of Apoptotic HepG2 Cells and PC12 Cells Based On Microchip Electrophoresis–Laser-Induced Fluorescence. Anal Chem 2012; 84:4687-94. [DOI: 10.1021/ac300255n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Lin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Gothenburg, S-41296, Gothenburg, Sweden
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W. Frost
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Meng Jing
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Michael T. Bowser
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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14
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Ye X, Xie F, Romanova EV, Rubakhin SS, Sweedler JV. PRODUCTION OF NITRIC OXIDE WITHIN THE APLYSIA CALIFORNICA NERVOUS SYSTEM. ACS Chem Neurosci 2010; 1:182-193. [PMID: 20532188 DOI: 10.1021/cn900016z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO), an intercellular signaling molecule, helps coordinate neuronal network activity. Here we examine NO generation in the Aplysia central nervous system using 4,5-diaminofluorescein diacetate (DAF-2 DA), a fluorescent reagent that forms 4,5-diaminofluorescein triazole (DAF-2T) upon reaction with NO. Recognizing that other fluorescence products are formed within the biochemically complex intracellular environment, we validate the observed fluorescence as being from DAF-2T; using both capillary electrophoresis and mass spectrometry we confirm that DAF-2T is formed from tissues and cells exposed to DAF-2 DA. We observe three distinct subcellular distributions of fluorescence in neurons exposed to DAF-2 DA. The first shows uniform fluorescence inside the cell, with these cells being among previously confirmed NOS-positive regions in the Aplysia cerebral ganglion. The second, seen inside buccal neurons, exhibits point sources of fluorescence, 1.5 ± 0.7 µm in diameter. Interestingly, the number of fluorescence puncta increases when the tissue is preincubated with the NOS substrate L-arginine, and they disappear when cells are preexposed to the NOS inhibitor L-NAME, demonstrating that the fluorescence is connected to NOS-dependent NO production. The third distribution type, seen in the R2 neuron, also exhibits fluorescent puncta, but only on the cell surface. Fluorescence is also observed in the terminals of cultured bag cell neurons loaded with DAF-2 DA. Surprisingly, fluorescence at the R2 surface and bag cell neuron terminals is not modulated by L-arginine or L-NAME, suggesting it has a source distinct from the buccal and cerebral ganglion DAF 2T-positive tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Ye
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Fang Xie
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Elena V. Romanova
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Stanislav S. Rubakhin
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Jonathan V. Sweedler
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
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16
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Stevenson DJ, Gunn-Moore FJ, Campbell P, Dholakia K. Single cell optical transfection. J R Soc Interface 2010; 7:863-71. [PMID: 20064901 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2009.0463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell is impermeable to most hydrophilic substances, yet the insertion of these materials into cells is an extremely important and universal requirement for the cell biologist. To address this need, many transfection techniques have been developed including viral, lipoplex, polyplex, capillary microinjection, gene gun and electroporation. The current discussion explores a procedure called optical injection, where a laser field transiently increases the membrane permeability to allow species to be internalized. If the internalized substance is a nucleic acid, such as DNA, RNA or small interfering RNA (siRNA), then the process is called optical transfection. This contactless, aseptic, single cell transfection method provides a key nanosurgical tool to the microscopist-the intracellular delivery of reagents and single nanoscopic objects. The experimental possibilities enabled by this technology are only beginning to be realized. A review of optical transfection is presented, along with a forecast of future applications of this rapidly developing and exciting technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Stevenson
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.
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Perry M, Li Q, Kennedy RT. Review of recent advances in analytical techniques for the determination of neurotransmitters. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 653:1-22. [PMID: 19800472 PMCID: PMC2759352 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2009] [Revised: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Methods and advances for monitoring neurotransmitters in vivo or for tissue analysis of neurotransmitters over the last five years are reviewed. The review is organized primarily by neurotransmitter type. Transmitter and related compounds may be monitored by either in vivo sampling coupled to analytical methods or implanted sensors. Sampling is primarily performed using microdialysis, but low-flow push-pull perfusion may offer advantages of spatial resolution while minimizing the tissue disruption associated with higher flow rates. Analytical techniques coupled to these sampling methods include liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, enzyme assays, sensors, and mass spectrometry. Methods for the detection of amino acid, monoamine, neuropeptide, acetylcholine, nucleoside, and soluble gas neurotransmitters have been developed and improved upon. Advances in the speed and sensitivity of these methods have enabled improvements in temporal resolution and increased the number of compounds detectable. Similar advances have enabled improved detection at tissue samples, with a substantial emphasis on single cell and other small samples. Sensors provide excellent temporal and spatial resolution for in vivo monitoring. Advances in application to catecholamines, indoleamines, and amino acids have been prominent. Improvements in stability, sensitivity, and selectivity of the sensors have been of paramount interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Perry
- University of Michigan, Department of Chemistry, 930 N. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
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Hong H, Sun J, Cai W. Multimodality imaging of nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthases. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 47:684-98. [PMID: 19524664 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2009] [Revised: 05/28/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) and NO synthases (NOSs) are crucial factors in many pathophysiological processes such as inflammation, vascular/neurological function, and many types of cancer. Noninvasive imaging of NO or NOS can provide new insights in understanding these diseases and facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies. In this review, we will summarize the current state-of-the-art multimodality imaging in detecting NO and NOSs, including optical (fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and bioluminescence), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), magnetic resonance (MR), and positron emission tomography (PET). With continued effort over the last several years, these noninvasive imaging techniques can now reveal the biodistribution of NO or NOS in living subjects with high fidelity which will greatly facilitate scientists/clinicians in the development of new drugs and/or patient management. Lastly, we will also discuss future directions/applications of NO/NOS imaging. Successful development of novel NO/NOS imaging agents with optimal in vivo stability and desirable pharmacokinetics for clinical translation will enable the maximum benefit in patient management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Hong
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705-2275, USA
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