Fabrication of graphene/poly(methyl methacrylate) composite electrode for capillary electrophoretic determination of bioactive constituents in Herba Geranii

Recent Applications of Capillary Electrophoresis in the Determination of Active Compounds in Medicinal Plants and Pharmaceutical Formulations

The present review summarizes scientific reports from between 2010 and 2019 on the use of capillary electrophoresis to quantify active constituents (i.e., phenolic compounds, coumarins, protoberberines, curcuminoids, iridoid glycosides, alkaloids, triterpene acids) in medicinal plants and herbal formulations. The present literature review is founded on PRISMA guidelines and selection criteria were formulated on the basis of PICOS (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Study type). The scrutiny reveals capillary electrophoresis with ultraviolet detection as the most frequently used capillary electromigration technique for the selective separation and quantification of bioactive compounds. For the purpose of improvement of resolution and sensitivity, other detection methods are used (including mass spectrometry), modifiers to the background electrolyte are introduced and different extraction as well as pre-concentration techniques are employed. In conclusion, capillary electrophoresis is a powerful tool and for given applications it is comparable to high performance liquid chromatography. Short time of execution, high efficiency, versatility in separation modes and low consumption of solvents and sample make capillary electrophoresis an attractive and eco-friendly alternative to more expensive methods for the quality control of drugs or raw plant material without any relevant decrease in sensitivity.

Biological applications of microchip electrophoresis with amperometric detection: in vivo monitoring and cell analysis

Microchip electrophoresis with amperometric detection (ME-EC) is a useful tool for the determination of redox active compounds in complex biological samples. In this review, a brief background on the principles of ME-EC is provided, including substrate types, electrode materials, and electrode configurations. Several different detection approaches are described, including dual-channel systems for dual-electrode detection and electrochemistry coupled with fluorescence and chemiluminescence. The application of ME-EC to the determination of catecholamines, adenosine and its metabolites, and reactive nitrogen and oxygen species in microdialysis samples and cell lysates is also detailed. Lastly, approaches for coupling of ME-EC with microdialysis sampling to create separation-based sensors that can be used for near real-time monitoring of drug metabolism and neurotransmitters in freely roaming animals are provided. Graphical abstract.

Electrochemical luminescence determination of hyperin using a sol-gel@graphene luminescent composite film modified electrode for solid phase microextraction

In this paper, a novel electrochemiluminescence (ECL) sensor of sol-gel@graphene luminescent composite film modified electrode for hyperin determination was prepared using graphene (G) as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) material, based on selective preconcentration of target onto an electrode and followed by luminol ECL detection. Hyperin was firstly extracted from aqueous solution through the modified GCE. Hydrogel, electrogenerated chemiluminescence reagents, pH of working solution, extraction time and temperature and scan rate were discussed. Under the optimum conditions, the change of ECL intensity was in proportion to the concentration of hyperin in the range of 0.02-0.24μg/mL with a detection limit of 0.01μg/mL. This method showed good performance in stability, reproducibility and precision for the determination of hyperin.

Synthesis, toxicity, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications of graphene and graphene-related materials

Graphene is a two-dimensional atomic crystal, and since its development it has been applied in many novel ways in both research and industry. Graphene possesses unique properties, and it has been used in many applications including sensors, batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, transistors, components of high-strength machinery, and display screens in mobile devices. In the past decade, the biomedical applications of graphene have attracted much interest. Graphene has been reported to have antibacterial, antiplatelet, and anticancer activities. Several salient features of graphene make it a potential candidate for biological and biomedical applications. The synthesis, toxicity, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications of graphene are fundamental issues that require thorough investigation in any kind of applications related to human welfare. Therefore, this review addresses the various methods available for the synthesis of graphene, with special reference to biological synthesis, and highlights the biological applications of graphene with a focus on cancer therapy, drug delivery, bio-imaging, and tissue engineering, together with a brief discussion of the challenges and future perspectives of graphene. We hope to provide a comprehensive review of the latest progress in research on graphene, from synthesis to applications.

Electrodeposition of reduced graphene oxide on a Pt electrode and its use as amperometric sensor in microchip electrophoresis

This report describes the development and application of a novel graphene-modified electrode to be used as amperometric sensor in microchip electrophoresis (ME) devices. The modified electrode was achieved based on electroreduction of graphene oxide on an integrated Pt working electrode of a commercial ME device. The surface modification was characterized by SEM and cyclic voltammetry techniques. The results indicated that graphene sheets were successfully deposited exhibiting higher surface conductivity and greater electrode sensitivity. The performance of the modified electrode for the amperometric detection on ME devices has been demonstrated by the separation and detection of an anionic mixture containing iodide and ascorbate. The graphene-modified electrode provided significantly higher sensitivity (896.7 vs. 210.9 pA/μM for iodide and 217.8 vs. 127.8 pA/μM for ascorbate), better separation efficiencies (3400 vs. 700 plates/m for iodide and 10 000 vs. 2400 plates/m for ascorbate), enhanced peak resolutions (1.6 vs. 1.0), and LODs (1.5 vs. 5.3 μM for iodide and 3.1 vs. 7.3 μM for ascorbate) in comparison with the unmodified Pt electrode. The proposed amperometric sensor was successfully applied for the analysis of ascorbic acid (through its anionic form) in a commercial medicine sample, and the results achieved were in agreement with the value provided by the supplier. Based on the data here presented, the modified graphene electrode shows great promise for ME applications.

Microchip bioreactors based on trypsin-immobilized graphene oxide-poly(urea-formaldehyde) composite coating for efficient peptide mapping

Trypsin was covalently immobilized to graphene oxide (GO)-poly(urea-formaldehyde) (PUF) composite coated on the channel wall of poly(methyl methacrylate) microchips to fabricate microfluidic bioreactors for highly efficient proteolysis. A mixture solution containing urea-formaldehyde prepolymer and GO nanosheets was allowed to flow through the channels. The modification layer on the channel wall could further polycondense to form GO-PUF composite coating in the presence of ammonium chloride. The primary amino groups of trypsin could react with the carboxyl groups of the GO sheets in the coating with the aid of carboxyl activating agents to realize covalent immobilization. The feasibility and performance of the novel GO-based microchip bioreactors were demonstrated by the digestion of bovine serum albumin, lysozyme, ovalbumin, and myoglobin. The digestion time was significantly reduced to less than 5s. The obtained digests were identified by MALDI-TOF MS with satisfactory sequence coverages that were comparable to those obtained by using 12-h in-solution digestion. The present proteolysis strategy is simple and efficient, offering great promise for high-throughput protein identification.

Immobilization of trypsin via graphene oxide-silica composite for efficient microchip proteolysis

In this report, trypsin was covalently immobilized in the graphene oxide (GO)-silica composite coating on the channel wall of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) microchips to fabricate microfluidic bioreactors for highly efficient proteolysis. A mixture solution containing GO nanosheets and silica gel was injected into the channels to form coating. 1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide and N-hydroxysuccinimide were used as carboxyl activating agents to crosslink the primary amino groups of trypsin to the carboxyl groups of the entrapped GO sheets in the composite to realize covalent immobilization. The feasibility and performance of the novel GO-based microfluidic bioreactors were demonstrated by the digestion of hemoglobin (HEM), cytochrome c (Cyt-c), myoglobin (MYO), and ovalbumin (OVA) and the digestion time was significantly reduced to 5s. The obtained digests were identified by MALDI-TOF MS with the sequence coverages of 95%, 76%, 69%, and 55% for HEM, Cyt-c, MYO, and OVA, respectively. The suitability of the prepared bioreactors to complex proteins was demonstrated by digesting human serum.

Graphene nanoparticles as pseudostationary phase for the electrokinetic separation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

The exceptional properties of graphene (G) were exploited here to facilitate capillary electrokinetic separations. Two types of commercially available G consisting of nanoparticles containing-one to three and-four to six G sheets, respectively, were compared for this purpose. Both proved effective in separating the arylpropyl derivatives of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The highest resolution and shortest migration times were obtained with G containing high amount of single and double G nanosheets. G affords higher resolution than other types of nanoparticles; stable suspensions can be easily prepared and used as BGE without the need of adding an additional surfactant. This results in a high reproducibility in migration times and stability in background noise. The LOD and LOQ obtained by using G nanoparticles as pseudostationary phases spanned the range 0.29-1.18 mg/L and 0.95-3.95 mg/L, respectively, and the RSD was less than 4.7% in all instances.

Graphene/poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) composite electrode fabricated by melt compounding for capillary electrophoretic determination of flavones in Cacumen platycladi

In this report, a graphene/poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) composite electrode was fabricated by melt compounding for the amperometric detection of capillary electrophoresis. The composite electrode was fabricated by packing a mixture of graphene and melted poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) in a piece of fused silica capillary under heat. The structure of the composite was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that graphene sheets were well dispersed in the composite to form an interconnected conducting network. The performance of this unique graphene-based detector has been demonstrated by separating and detecting rutin, quercitrin, kaempferol, and quercetin in Cacumen platycladi in combination with capillary electrophoresis. The four flavones have been well separated within 9 min in a 50-cm-long capillary at a separation voltage of 12 kV using a 50 mM sodium borate buffer (pH 9.2). The graphene-based detector offered significantly lower operating potentials, substantially enhanced signal-to-noise characteristics, lower expense of operation, high resistance to surface fouling, and enhanced stability. It showed long-term stability and repeatability with relative standard deviations of <5% for the peak current (n = 15).

Smart portable electrophoresis instrument based on multipurpose microfluidic chips with electrochemical detection

A second generation of a battery-powered portable electrophoresis instrument for the use of ME with electrochemical detection was developed. As the first-generation, the main unit of the instrument (150 mm × 165 mm × 95 mm) consists of four-outputs high-voltage power supply (HVPS) with maximum voltage of 3 KV and acquisition system (bipotentiostat) containing 2-channels for dual electrochemical detection. A new reusable microfluidic platform was designed in order to incorporate the microchips with the portable instrument. In this case, the platform is integrated to the main unit of the instrument so that it is not necessary to have any external cable for the interconnection of both parts, making the use of the complete system easier. The new platform contains all the electrical connections for the HVPS and bipotentiostat, as well as fluidic ports for driving the solutions. The microfluidic electrophoresis instrument is controlled by means of a user-friendly interface from a computer. The possibility of wireless connection (Bluetooth®) allows the use of the instrument without any external cable improving the portability. Therefore, the second generation brings a more compact and integrated electrophoresis instrument for "in situ" applications using microfluidic chips in an easy way. The performance of the electrophoresis system was initially evaluated using single- and dual-channel SU-8/Pyrex microchips with different models of integrated electrodes including microelectrodes and interdigitated arrays. The method was tested in different analytical applications such as separation of neurotransmitters, chlorophenols, purine derivatives, vitamins, polyphenolic acids, and flavones.

Magnetic loading of graphene-nickel nanoparticle hybrid for electrochemical sensing of carbohydrates

Graphene-nickel nanoparticle hybrid was prepared by the one-step far infrared-assisted reduction of graphene oxide and nickel (II) ions using hydrazine. It was loaded on the surface of a magnetic electrode for electrochemical sensing. The feasibility and performance of the novel electrode were demonstrated by measuring carbohydrates using cyclic voltammetry and amperometry. It demonstrated that nickel nanoparticles decorated on graphene sheets exhibited higher electrocatalytic activity toward the oxidation of carbohydrates while graphene improved the electron transduction. The synergistic effect significantly enhanced the current response of carbohydrates.

Electrochemical methods in conjunction with capillary and microchip electrophoresis

Electromigrative techniques such as capillary and microchip electrophoresis (CE and MCE) are inherently associated with various electrochemical phenomena. The electrolytic processes occurring in the buffer reservoirs have to be considered for a proper design of miniaturized electrophoretic systems and a suitable selection of buffer composition. In addition, the control of the electroosmotic flow plays a crucial role for the optimization of CE/MCE separations. Electroanalytical methods have significant importance in the field of detection in conjunction with CE/MCE. At present, amperometric detection and contactless conductivity detection are the predominating electrochemical detection methods for CE/MCE. This paper reviews the most recent trends in the field of electrochemical detection coupled to CE/MCE. The emphasis is on methodical developments and new applications that have been published over the past five years. A rather new way for the implementation of electrochemical methods into CE systems is the concept of electrochemically assisted injection which involves the electrochemical conversions of analytes during the injection step. This approach is particularly attractive in hyphenation to mass spectrometry (MS) as it widens the range of CE-MS applications. An overview of recent developments of electrochemically assisted injection coupled to CE is presented.