Determination of tropane alkaloids atropine and scopolamine by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry in plant organs of Datura species

Determination of Atropine by HPLC in Plant of Datura by Liquid-Liquid Extraction and Magnet Solid-Phase Extraction

Atropine is a tropane alkaloid found in abundance in Datura plant. We used two liquid-liquid extraction methods and magnet solid-phase extraction to compare the amount of atropine in these two types of plants (Datura innoxia and Datura stramonium). The surface magnetic nanoparticle Fe3O4 correction with an amine and dextrin, and finally, magnetic solid-phase extraction Fe3O4@SiO2-NH2-dextrin (MNPs-dextrin), was prepared. We determined the effect of significant parameters in the removal step and optimization of atropine measurements with half-fractional factorial design (25-1) and response surface methodology via central composite design. The optimum conditions are for desorption solvent = 0.5 mL methanol and desorption time of 5 min. We obtained an extraction recovery of 87.63% with a relative standard deviation of 4.73% via six frequented measurements on a 1 μg L-1 atropine standard solution based on the optimum condition. Preconcentration factors for MNPs are 81, limit of detection = 0.76 μg L-1 and limit of quantitation = 2.5 μg L-1.

Tropinone reductase: A comprehensive review on its role as the key enzyme in tropane alkaloids biosynthesis

TAs, including hyoscyamine and scopolamine, were used to treat neuromuscular disorders ranging from nerve agent poisoning to Parkinson's disease. Tropinone reductase I (TR-I; EC 1.1.1.206) catalyzed the conversion of tropinone into tropine in the biosynthesis of TAs, directing the metabolic flow towards hyoscyamine and scopolamine. Tropinone reductase II (TR-II; EC 1.1.1.236) was responsible for the conversion of tropinone into pseudotropine, diverting the metabolic flux towards calystegine A3. The regulation of metabolite flow through both branches of the TAs pathway seemed to be influenced by the enzymatic activity of both enzymes and their accessibility to the precursor tropinone. The significant interest in the utilization of metabolic engineering for the efficient production of TAs has highlighted the importance of TRs as crucial enzymes that govern both the direction of metabolic flow and the yield of products. This review discussed recent advances for the TRs sources, properties, protein structure and biocatalytic mechanisms, and a detailed overview of its crucial role in the metabolism and synthesis of TAs was summarized. Furthermore, we conducted a detailed investigation into the evolutionary origins of these two TRs. A prospective analysis of potential challenges and applications of TRs was presented.

Simultaneous quantification of hyoscyamine and scopolamine using HPLC-DAD in four Solanaceae: Hyoscyamus niger, Datura stramonium, Atropa belladonna and Mandragora officinarum

Alkaloids are a group of secondary metabolites that generate great interest since ancient times. Numerous Solanaceae plants are rich sources of tropane alkaloids as hyoscyamine and scopolamine which are obtained mainly from Hyoscyamus niger, Datura stramonium, Atropa belladonna, Mandragora officinarum. In the present study it was developed an HPLC-DAD using an XBridge Phenyl column for the quantification of scopolamine and hyoscyamine, molecules used in pharmaceutical industry to treat stomach or intestinal disorders. A. belladonna presented hyoscyamine and scopolamine, the first one ranged from 1466 to 5117 mg/Kg DW while the second one ranged from 140 to 1743 mg/Kg DW. In D. stramonium, hyoscyamine was not found while scopolamine ranged from 430 to 8980 mg/Kg DW. On the contrary H. niger and M. officinarum did not contain any trace of these alkaloids. This is the first work in which different parts of four Solanaceae were analysed for their hyoscyamine and scopolamine content.

Fe3 O4 and bimetal-organic framework Zn/Mg composite peroxide-like catalyze luminol chemiluminescence for specific measurement of atropine in Datura plant

Atropine (AT) is an anticholinergic drug. AT is abundantly in Datura plant seeds. Fe3 O4 @Zn/Mg MOF (Fe3 O4 @MOF) composite was synthesized. The compound had a high peroxidase-like activity in a chemiluminescence (CL) reaction. Addition of AT quenched CL. The linear range and limit of detection were 5-600 μg L-1 and 2 × 10-2  μg L-1 . This method is fast, reversible, and selective, without biodegradability effects, high accuracy, and precision for measuring AT in the Datura plant.

The Plant Virus Tomato Spotted Wilt Orthotospovirus Benefits Its Vector Frankliniella occidentalis by Decreasing Plant Toxic Alkaloids in Host Plant Datura stramonium

The transmission of insect-borne viruses involves sophisticated interactions between viruses, host plants, and vectors. Chemical compounds play an important role in these interactions. Several studies reported that the plant virus tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) increases host plant quality for its vector and benefits the vector thrips Frankliniella occidentalis. However, few studies have investigated the chemical ecology of thrips vectors, TSWV, and host plants. Here, we demonstrated that in TSWV-infected host plant Datura stramonium, (1) F. occidentalis were more attracted to feeding on TSWV-infected D. stramonium; (2) atropine and scopolamine, the main tropane alkaloids in D. stramonium, which are toxic to animals, were down-regulated by TSWV infection of the plant; and (3) F. occidentalis had better biological performance (prolonged adult longevity and increased fecundity, resulting in accelerated population growth) on TSWV-infected D. stramonium than on TSWV non-infected plants. These findings provide in-depth information about the physiological mechanisms responsible for the virus's benefits to its vector by virus infection of plant regulating alkaloid accumulation in the plant.

Phytoconstituents of Datura metel extract improved motor coordination in haloperidol-induced cataleptic mice: Dual-target molecular docking and behavioural studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prominent health challenge characterized by complex aetiology and limited therapeutic breakthroughs. Datura metel (DM) is a medicinal plant containing active phytoconstituents with neuropharmacological potentials. In traditional medicine, it exerts anticholinergic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and protection from organophosphate poisoning inclusively involved in the pharmacotherapy of PD. Its other PD-related medicinal potency includes treatment of motor sickness and bradycardia. However, the exact mechanisms of anti-PD effects of its phytoconstituents remain underexplored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, methanolic extract of DM was evaluated for anti-PD behavioural effects in vivo haloperidol-induced cataleptic mice. The GC-MS-identified phytochemicals were studied for one-drug-multi-target inhibitory mechanisms against some key targets for PD treatment, alpha-synuclein (ASN) and dopa decarboxylase (DDC) using molecular docking.

RESULTS

and discussion: Chronic administration of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg of DM extract improved the 14-s latency time induced by haloperidol to 54, 54 and 57 s respectively, whereas levodopa (30 mg/kg) produced 47 s in rotarod tests. Similarly, the descending times for haloperidol-induced cataleptic mice were significantly reduced from 110 s to 17.7, 17.7 and 12.5 s by the respective chronic doses of DM extract, whereas levodopa-administered mice spent 17.5 s descending the same 30 cm pole. The interesting motor coordination enhancements are suggestively due to synergistic inhibition of ASN and DCC by the phytoconstituents of DM, especially, atropine and scopolamine. From the docking analysis, the two phytochemicals interacted more potently with the active therapeutic sites of the dual targets than levodopa and carbidopa.

CONCLUSION

Methanolic extract of DM contains active phytochemicals for multi-target-directed antiparkinsonian mechanisms amenable for further studies.

Preclinical Models for Alzheimer's Disease: Past, Present, and Future Approaches

A robust preclinical disease model is a primary requirement to understand the underlying mechanisms, signaling pathways, and drug screening for human diseases. Although various preclinical models are available for several diseases, clinical models for Alzheimer's disease (AD) remain underdeveloped and inaccurate. The pathophysiology of AD mainly includes the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). Furthermore, neuroinflammation and free radical generation also contribute to AD. Currently, there is a wide gap in scientific approaches to preventing AD progression. Most of the available drugs are limited to symptomatic relief and improve deteriorating cognitive functions. To mimic the pathogenesis of human AD, animal models like 3XTg-AD and 5XFAD are the primarily used mice models in AD therapeutics. Animal models for AD include intracerebroventricular-streptozotocin (ICV-STZ), amyloid beta-induced, colchicine-induced, etc., focusing on parameters such as cognitive decline and dementia. Unfortunately, the translational rate of the potential drug candidates in clinical trials is poor due to limitations in imitating human AD pathology in animal models. Therefore, the available preclinical models possess a gap in AD modeling. This paper presents an outline that critically assesses the applicability and limitations of the current approaches in disease modeling for AD. Also, we attempted to provide key suggestions for the best-fit model to evaluate potential therapies, which might improve therapy translation from preclinical studies to patients with AD.

Elicitation of Hyoscyamine Production in Datura stramonium L. Plants Using Tobamoviruses

Datura stramonium L. produces tropane alkaloids, and the hyoscyamine is dominant among them. Hyoscyamine is produced by hairy root cultures in vitro derived from native plants or plants with the genetically modified biosynthetic pathway for hyoscyamine. A common procedure is extraction from cultivated plants. Elicitors for increased production can be used in both cases. Live viruses are not well known for use as elicitors, therefore, D. stramonium plants grown in soil were artificially infected with the tobamoviruses Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV), and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Differences in the content of hyoscyamine were between capsules and roots of infected and non-infected plants. Elicitation increased content of hyoscyamine in capsules 1.23-2.34 times, compared to the control. The most effective viruses were PMMoV and ToMV (isolate PV143), which increased content to above 19 mg/g of fresh weight of a capsule. The effect of each virus elicitor was expressed also in hyoscyamine content in roots. Elicited plants contained 5.41-16.54 times more hyoscyamine in roots compared to non-elicited plants. The most effective elicitor was ToMV SL-1, which raised production above 20 mg/g fresh weight of roots. It has been shown that tobamoviruses can be used as biotic elicitors.

Rapid Detection and Determination of Scopolamine in the Leaf Extract of Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) Plants Using a Novel Nanosensor

Background

Scopolamine is among the most essential tropane alkaloids used to remedy various nervous system disorders such as urinary incontinence, motion sickness, and spasmodic movements because of its anticholinergic and antispasmodic effects.

Objective

In this study, an optical nanosensor was fabricated using nano-Dragendorff’s reagent to detect and determine scopolamine in different plant parts at different stages of growth.

Method

For fabrication of the sensing phase, GO-g-PCA/DR was synthesized by encapsulation of Dragendorff’s reagent (DR) on the graphene oxide grafted with poly citric acid (GO-g-PCA) with ultrasonication for 15 min and stirred for 80 min at room temperature, and then it was immobilized on a triacetyl cellulose membrane. The kinetic absorption profiles were recorded at 360 nm, which is concerned with the reaction between immobilized GO-g-PCA/DR and different concentrations of scopolamine.

Results

The nanosensor showed a rapid, strong, and stable response to the scopolamine solution with changing the absorption spectrum at 360 nm. The reaction was completed in a period of 300 s. The SEM, AFM, and FT-IR analysis of nanocomposites and nanosensors show the successful synthesis of GO-g-PCA/DR and the reaction between nanosensor and scopolamine. All experiments were performed at the wavelength of 360 nm, room temperature, pH 7 (the scopolamine solution pH), and 300 s. The nanosensor had a linear range of 0.65 to 19.63 μg/mL and 0.19 ± 0.025 μg/mL as the limit of detection for scopolamine determination. In order to reuse the designed nanosensor, it was recovered with ethanol, and the color ultimately returned to its original state.

Conclusions

This in situ nanosensor can determine the scopolamine in real samples with easy reversibility, extended lifetime, and reproducibility of the sensing phase response.

Highlights

A sensitive, precise, and fast response optical nanosensor is designed for in situ determination of scopolamine in real samples.

In Vitro Analysis of Extracts of Plant Used in Mexican Traditional Medicine, Which Are Useful to Combat Clostridioides difficile Infection

Recently, a worrying acceleration of the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has been reported. The increase in antibiotic-associated diseases, such as Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), has promoted research on new treatments that could be more effective and less aggressive for CDI patients. This study evaluates eight plants with antimicrobial activity commonly used in Mexican traditional medicine to evaluate their potential against C. difficile. We provide essential information about these plants’ activities and action mechanisms against C. difficile and their effect on different bacterial infection activities: motility, adherence, sporulation, and germination. The selected plants are rosemary, estafiate, rue, epazote, mint, toloache, ajenjo, and thyme. We used clinical isolates to test their activity against strains responsible for current outbreaks to provide more information about the clinical impact of these extracts. We found that thyme, ajenjo, and mint were the most effective against the isolates. We identified that the extracts affected protein synthesis. In addition, the extracts affect the strains’ motility, and some, such as thyme extract, affect adherence, whereas rue extract affects sporulation. These results led to the identification of new compounds beneficial to CDI treatment.

Antioxidant Activity of Aqueous Extract of Leaves and Seeds of Datura metel (Solanaceae) in Frog's Heart Failure Model

Objective

The aim of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant potential of Datura metel.

Materials and Methods

Heart failure was induced in the frog's heart by continuous perfusion of hydrogen peroxide. Survival time and some heart tissue parameters of oxidative stress were recorded in the presence of aqueous extracts of the leaves and seeds of Datura metel. Ascorbic acid was used as a reference drug.

Results

H2O2-enriched Ringer's solution inhibited the negative inotropic and chronotropic effects of acetylcholine, indicating the desensibilization of muscarinic receptors due to H2O2-induced oxidative stress. These hearts had a relatively short survival time (14 minutes). In the presence of the aqueous extract of the leaves and seeds of Datura metel (1.5 and 2.5 mg/mL), the time necessary to cause the cardiac arrest was extended to 35 and 37 minutes, respectively, versus 29 minutes for ascorbic acid and 14 minutes for H2O2. Furthermore, antioxidant parameters (MDA, SOD, and CAT) were significantly improved in plant extract-treated hearts, compared to peroxidized hearts.

Conclusion

Aqueous extract of the leaves and seeds of D. metel can extend heart survival time through antioxidant mechanisms.

Overview of Recent Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry-Based Methods for Natural Toxins Detection in Food Products

Natural toxins include a wide range of toxic metabolites also occurring in food and products, thus representing a risk for consumer health. In the last few decades, several robust and sensitive analytical methods able to determine their occurrence in food have been developed. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry is the most powerful tool for the simultaneous detection of these toxins due to its advantages in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. A comprehensive review on the most relevant papers on methods based on liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for the analysis of mycotoxins, alkaloids, marine toxins, glycoalkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides and furocoumarins in food is reported herein. Specifically, a literature search from 2011 to 2021 was carried out, selecting a total of 96 papers. Different approaches to sample preparation, chromatographic separation and detection mode are discussed. Particular attention is given to the analytical performance characteristics obtained in the validation process and the relevant application to real samples.

Fluorescence-based immunochromatographic test strip for the detection of hyoscyamine

Hyoscyamine (HSM), which acts as an antagonist of the acetylcholine muscarinic receptor and can induce a variety of distinct toxic syndromes in mammals (anti-cholinergic poisoning), is hazardous to human health. Therefore, it is urgent to develop a rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective method to determine HSM. A fluorescent microsphere based immunochromatographic assay was developed for this analyte and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were used as a comparison. A monoclonal antibody against HSM was prepared with a 50% inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of 1.17 ng mL^-1, with no cross-reactivity with five drugs. Under optimized conditions, the cut off limits using the fluorescence-labeled monoclonal antibody strips were 10 ng mL^-1 in 0.01 M PBS and 20 ng mL^-1 in pork, pig urine, and honey samples, and the assay could be completed within 10 min. In comparison with a AuNP immunochromatographic assay, the developed method offered a higher coupling rate and lower amounts of antibodies. This approach could be used for simple, sensitive and rapid screening, and is suitable for on-site screening applications.

Development of CE-C4D Method for Determination Tropane Alkaloids

A fast method for the determination of tropane alkaloids, using a portable CE instrument with a capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detector (CE-C⁴D) was developed and validated for determination of atropine and scopolamine in seeds from Solanaceae family plants. Separation was obtained within 5 min, using an optimized background electrolyte consisting of 0.5 M acetic acid with 0.25% (w/v) β-CD. The limit of detection and quantification was 0.5 µg/mL and 1.5 µg/mL, respectively, for both atropine and scopolamine. The developed method was validated with the following parameters—precision (CV): 1.07–2.08%, accuracy of the assay (recovery, RE): 101.0–102.7% and matrix effect (ME): 92.99–94.23%. Moreover, the optimized CE-C⁴D method was applied to the analysis of plant extracts and pharmaceuticals, proving its applicability and accuracy.

Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicology of Datura Species-A Review

Datura, a genus of medicinal herb from the Solanaceae family, is credited with toxic as well as medicinal properties. The different plant parts of Datura sp., mainly D. stramonium L., commonly known as Datura or Jimson Weed, exhibit potent analgesic, antiviral, anti-diarrheal, and anti-inflammatory activities, owing to the wide range of bioactive constituents. With these pharmacological activities, D. stramonium is potentially used to treat numerous human diseases, including ulcers, inflammation, wounds, rheumatism, gout, bruises and swellings, sciatica, fever, toothache, asthma, and bronchitis. The primary phytochemicals investigation on plant extract of Datura showed alkaloids, carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, amino acids, and phenolic compounds. It also contains toxic tropane alkaloids, including atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscamine. Although some studies on D. stramonium have reported potential pharmacological effects, information about the toxicity remains almost uncertain. Moreover, the frequent abuse of D. stramonium for recreational purposes has led to toxic syndromes. Therefore, it becomes necessary to be aware of the toxic aspects and the potential risks accompanying its use. The present review aims to summarize the phytochemical composition and pharmacological and toxicological aspects of the plant Datura.

Scopolia carniolica var. hladnikiana: Alkaloidal Analysis and Potential Taxonomical Implications

The present research sought to compare the content of hyoscyamine/atropine and scopolamine in Scopolia carniolica and its contested variety, S. carniolica var. hladnikiana, with the aim of investigating differences that may be of taxonomical significance. A multi-phase liquid extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography were used to extract and analyse these alkaloids in different organs from plants collected over two years at three sites. Our results showed that hyoscyamine was almost twice as prevalent as scopolamine across our 87 samples. The differences between organ types were large, but so too were intra-organ differences; differences due to organs proved to be significant for hyoscyamine, while they were only marginally significant for scopolamine. The collection site also proved to have a significant influence, but only on hyoscyamine content. The year of collection and the variety proved to not be significant. Our results support the theory that these two varieties are likely one, a view argued by many others, though more work is needed to draw concrete taxonomical conclusions.

Analytical and in silico study of the inclusion complexes between tropane alkaloids atropine and scopolamine with cyclodextrins

Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae) possesses a rich tropane alkaloids (TAs) spectrum. The plant contains, in particular, the allelopathic compounds scopolamine and atropine, which are poorly soluble in water, thus limiting their use in agrochemical formulations as biocidal and deterrent agents against herbivore insects. The efficacy of the hydrophobic TAs extracts could be increased with the improvement of their dissolution/leaching properties. This is important for improving screening and test performance and for elucidating the activity of environmentally friendly agricultural approaches, with new perspectives for the production and use of those biodegradable insecticidal products. The present study explores the aspects of atropine and scopolamine complexation with cyclodextrin (CDs) through FT-IR and UV–Vis spectroscopies. In addition, the structures of the inclusion complex of atropine, scopolamine and β-CD have been investigated by molecular modeling techniques. The results obtained indicate that β-CDs are a promising carriers for improving the properties of TAs, therefore increasing their application potential in agrochemical formulations.

Graphic abstract

Alkaloids of the Genus Datura: Review of a Rich Resource for Natural Product Discovery

The genus Datura (Solanaceae) contains nine species of medicinal plants that have held both curative utility and cultural significance throughout history. This genus’ particular bioactivity results from the enormous diversity of alkaloids it contains, making it a valuable study organism for many disciplines. Although Datura contains mostly tropane alkaloids (such as hyoscyamine and scopolamine), indole, beta-carboline, and pyrrolidine alkaloids have also been identified. The tools available to explore specialized metabolism in plants have undergone remarkable advances over the past couple of decades and provide renewed opportunities for discoveries of new compounds and the genetic basis for their biosynthesis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of studies on the alkaloids of Datura that focuses on three questions: How do we find and identify alkaloids? Where do alkaloids come from? What factors affect their presence and abundance? We also address pitfalls and relevant questions applicable to natural products and metabolomics researchers. With both careful perspectives and new advances in instrumentation, the pace of alkaloid discovery—from not just Datura—has the potential to accelerate dramatically in the near future.

Efficacy of scopolamine plus propofol in the treatment of recalcitrant psoriasis: A pilot study

Accumulating evidence suggests that botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), which inhibit acetylcholine release, can be used for treating plaque psoriasis. The therapeutic effects of scopolamine occur through antagonism of central muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Thus, scopolamine has potential for the treatment of psoriasis. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of scopolamine plus propofol for the treatment of recalcitrant psoriasis. Twelve patients with recalcitrant psoriasis were enrolled. Patients received intravenous injection of scopolamine plus propofol for 5 consecutive days per month for a total of 3 months. Clinical efficacy was evaluated using a Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) score. Efficacy outcome was ≥75% reduction in PASI score (PASI75) from baseline. Two patients were lost to follow-up. At week 8, two of 10 patients (20%) achieved PASI75, and at week 12, seven of 10 (70%) achieved PASI75. Treatment was well tolerated, with no reported adverse events. Our study revealed the efficacy and safety of scopolamine plus propofol for the treatment of recalcitrant psoriasis. Scopolamine plus propofol therapy may be a new treatment for recalcitrant psoriasis.

Tropane alkaloid contamination of agricultural commodities and food products in relation to consumer health: Learnings from the 2019 Uganda food aid outbreak

Tropane alkaloids (TAs) are secondary plant metabolites derived mainly from Solanaceae plant families, with the most virulent invasive species being Datura stramonium. Datura stramonium commonly grows in cereal fields and produce TAs (e.g., hyoscyamine and scopolamine) which may accidentally contaminate cereals (and cereal-based foods) at occasionally high levels. Dietary exposure to TAs can be toxic and depending on the dose ingested can cause outcomes ranging from anticholinergic effects to acute poisoning and death. In 2019, 315 adults became ill and another five adults died in Uganda following consumption of a "Super Cereal" (a fortified blended food) that was later confirmed to be contaminated by TAs-a scenario which provoked this holistic review on TAs in foodstuffs. Thus, this article provides information on the history, development, occurrences, exposures, and human legislative and health benchmarks for TAs. It describes control strategies for reducing TA contamination of agricultural commodities and resultant health implications following consumption of TA contaminated foodstuffs. Adequate application of food safety control measures (including maximum limits) and good practices, from the start of cereal cultivation through to the final stages of manufacturing of food products can aid in the reduction of seeing toxic plants including D. stramonium in cereal fields.

Determination of atropine and scopolamine in spinach-based products contaminated with genus Datura by UHPLC-MS/MS

Datura species are well known because of their high concentration of tropane alkaloids, which has led to poisoning episodes when Datura is accidentally mixed with edible crops. Therefore, the European Union has set a maximum level in cereal-based infant food products of 1 µg kg^-1 for atropine and scopolamine. However, the occurrence of these compounds in other commodities has become a global concern. Spinach and derived products can be contaminated with Datura innoxia leaves. In this study, we tested frozen spinachs and spinach-based infant food products. The determination was carried out by UHPLC-MS/MS after applying the QuEChERS method as sample treatment. The LOQs were below 0.016 µg kg^-1, achieving satisfactory results in terms of precision, accuracy, and matrix effects. The obtained results (ranging between 0.02 and 8.19 µg kg^-1) were close to the maximum level set by the European Union for 24% of the samples tested.

Datura quids at Pinwheel Cave, California, provide unambiguous confirmation of the ingestion of hallucinogens at a rock art site

Proponents of the altered states of consciousness (ASC) model have argued that hallucinogens have influenced the prehistoric making of images in caves and rock shelters. However, the lack of direct evidence for the consumption of hallucinogens at any global rock art site has undermined the ASC model. We present the first clear evidence for the ingestion of hallucinogens at a rock art site, in this case, from Pinwheel Cave, California. Quids in the cave ceiling are shown to be Datura wrightii, a Native Californian entheogen, indicating that, rather than illustrating visual phenomena caused by the Datura, the rock paintings instead likely represent the plant and its pollinator, calling into question long-held assumptions about rock art and the ASC model.

While debates have raged over the relationship between trance and rock art, unambiguous evidence of the consumption of hallucinogens has not been reported from any rock art site in the world. A painting possibly representing the flowers of Datura on the ceiling of a Californian rock art site called Pinwheel Cave was discovered alongside fibrous quids in the same ceiling. Even though Native Californians are historically documented to have used Datura to enter trance states, little evidence exists to associate it with rock art. A multianalytical approach to the rock art, the quids, and the archaeological context of this site was undertaken. Liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LC-MS) results found hallucinogenic alkaloids scopolamine and atropine in the quids, while scanning electron microscope analysis confirms most to be Datura wrightii. Three-dimensional (3D) analyses of the quids indicate the quids were likely masticated and thus consumed in the cave under the paintings. Archaeological evidence and chronological dating shows the site was well utilized as a temporary residence for a range of activities from Late Prehistory through Colonial Periods. This indicates that Datura was ingested in the cave and that the rock painting represents the plant itself, serving to codify communal rituals involving this powerful entheogen. These results confirm the use of hallucinogens at a rock art site while calling into question previous assumptions concerning trance and rock art imagery.

Simultaneous quantification of three tropane alkaloids in goji berries by cleanup of the graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe method was established for simultaneous determination of atropine, anisodamine, and scopolamine in goji berries by using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. The graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids were prepared and first applied as a cleanup adsorbent. Compared to classical cleanup adsorbent (C₁₈ ), the graphene/hexagonal boron nitride hybrids as adsorbent had better extraction efficiency for the detection of analytes. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed analytical method achieved satisfactory linearity (R²  > 0.995), and obtained desirable recoveries ranged from 77.4 to 94.0% with the relative standard deviation of 1.2-6.1% at the concentration levels of 3.2-13.4 µg/kg. The limits of quantitation of atropine, anisodamine, and scopolamine were, respectively, 3.2, 4.6, and 4.5 µg/kg with linearity ranged from 3.2 to 25.4 µg/kg. The modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe sample preparation with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry method was successfully applied to evaluate the safety of goji berries collected from 30 plant areas in China, suggesting its applicability and suitability for the routine analysis of three tropane alkaloids in goji berries.

Application of a streamlined LC-MS/MS methodology for the determination of atropine and scopolamine in cereals from Asian and African countries

Tropane alkaloids are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a wide variety of plants that can be present in edible materials or animal feed. Several human poisoning cases through consumption of cereals were reported over the last years and highlighted the need for reliable and robust analytical methodologies for safety control. To rationalize analyses in high-throughput laboratory environments dealing with shorter and shorter turn-around-around time, the scope of our multi mycotoxins method was extended to the analysis of two regulated tropane alkaloids, namely atropine and scopolamine. Extraction procedure is based on the QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Efficient, Rugged, and Safe) approach followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detection. Quantification is performed by the isotopic dilution approach using labelled isotopomers as internal standard. The procedure was validated at two fortification levels (0.5 µg/kg and 10 µg/kg) on different cereal-based products according to the European SANTE/12682/2019 document and performance parameters such as precision (RSD(r) ≤ 6%, RSD(iR) ≤ 6%) and recovery (82-114%) fulfilled its requirements. The limit of quantification (0.5 µg/kg) is low enough to ensure compliance with existing regulations. The method was further applied on 95 cereals and cereal-based products collected from Asian and African countries. All samples were found free of the two targeted TAs, with the exception of a rice-based product in which both atropine and scopolamine were quantified at 9.6 µg/kg and 2.6 µg/kg, respectively. A total of 29 cereals samples, shown to be free of both atropine and scopolamine were also analysed for mycotoxins. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol were sporadically detected at levels below the maximum levels defined by the European Union legislation often considered as the most stringent regulation.

Development of a new LC-MS method for accurate and sensitive determination of 33 pyrrolizidine and 21 tropane alkaloids in plant-based food matrices

Setting of maximum limits for a number of plant alkaloids is under discussion in the EU. The novel method developed and optimized in this study enables simultaneous determination of 21 tropane alkaloids (TAs) and 33 pyrrolizidine (PAs) together with their N-oxides (PANOs). For analysis of aqueous-methanolic extract, reversed phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (RP-U-HPLC-MS/MS) was employed. The method was validated for frequently contaminated matrices (i) sorghum, (ii) oregano, and (iii) mixed herbal tea. The recoveries at two spiking levels were in the range of 82-115%, 80-106%, and 78-117%, respectively, and repeatabilities were less than 19% for all analyte/matrix combinations. As regards the achieved limits of quantification (LOQ), their values were in the range of 0.5-10 μg kg^-1. The crucial problem encountered during method development, co-elution of multiple groups of isomeric alkaloids, was overcome by subsequent sample separation in the second chromatographic system, hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC), providing different separation selectivity. Lycopsamine, echinatine, and indicine (co-elution group 1) and N-oxides of indicine and intermedine (co-elution group 2), which could not be resolved on the commonly used RP column, were possible to separate fully by using the HILIC system.

Effect of ontogeny on the content of the hallucinogenic alkaloids atropine and scopolamine in the different organs of some Solanaceae plants

The content of atropine and scopolamine is known to vary with ontogeny and plant organs selected which makes it necessary to define the optimal stage for harvesting of each plant organ. The present study aims at investigating the effect of ontogeny on the accumulation of atropine and scopolamine in the leaves, stems, roots, flowers and fruits of the Solanaceae plants Burgmansia suaveolens Bercht. & J.Presl, Datura stramonium L., D. arborea L., D. inoxia Mill. and Hyoscyamus albus L. Results showed that the highest content of atropine and scopolamine was observed during the flowering stage of most organs. H. albus L. leaves collected during flowering stage exhibited the highest content of atropine (746.66 ug/g) followed by the pre-flowering leaves of D. stramonium L. and the flowering stage stems of H. albus L. while D. inoxia Mill. pre-flowering leaves and flowering stems had significantly higher content of scopolamine among all the tested extracts with a concentration of 555.04 ug/g and 244.26 ug/g, respectively.

Metabolomic differences between invasive alien plants from native and invaded habitats

Globalization facilitated the spread of invasive alien species (IAS), undermining the stability of the world's ecosystems. We investigated the metabolomic profiles of three IAS species: Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), and Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae), comparing metabolites of individual plants in their native habitats (USA), to their invasive counterparts growing in and around Kruger National Park (South Africa, ZA). Metabolomic samples were collected using RApid Metabolome Extraction and Storage (RAMES) technology, which immobilizes phytochemicals on glass fiber disks, reducing compound degradation, allowing long-term, storage and simplifying biochemical analysis. Metabolomic differences were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) of samples eluted from RAMES disks. Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) of metabolomes of individual plants allowed statistical separation of species, native and invasive populations of each species, and some populations on the same continent. Invasive populations of all species were more phytochemically diverse than their native counterparts, and their metabolomic profiles were statistically distinguishable from their native relatives. These data may elucidate the mechanisms of successful invasion and rapid adaptive evolution of IAS. Moreover, RAMES technology combined with PLS-DA statistical analysis may allow taxonomic identification of species and, possibly, populations within each species.

Determination of tropane alkaloids in cereals, tea and herbal infusions: Exploiting proficiency testing data as a basis to derive interlaboratory performance characteristics of an improved LC-MS/MS method

Monitoring of tropane alkaloids is regulated in the European Union in cereal-based foods for infants and young children, tea and herbal infusions. The European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) developed an improved LC-MS/MS analytical method using a pentafluorophenyl column, validated it and conducted two proficiency tests targeting these food categories. A subset of the data gathered from laboratories that used the JRC method was additionally exploited to derive interlaboratory performance characteristics. The method showed fit-for-purpose figures of merit. The LOQs for atropine and scopolamine were around 0.4 and 1.2 µg/kg in cereal products, and in tea and herbal infusions, respectively. Uncertainties varied from 15 to 25%. The reproducibility varied from 11 to 38% for scopolamine and from 17 to 44% for atropine at levels ranging from 0.18 to 18.8 and 1.2-54.0 µg/kg, respectively. Recoveries ranged from 71 to 96%. These performance parameters render the method a good candidate for standardisation.

The Use of Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Toothache in Ethiopia

This paper presents a review of relevant medicinal plants used for toothache treatment in Ethiopia. This finding is based on a review of the literature published in scientific journals. A total of 130 medicinal plants, distributed in 117 genera and 62 families, are reported in the reviewed literature. Of the 130 species of medicinal plants reported in the literature, ninety-two (70.7%) were obtained from the wild whereas twelve (9.2%) were from home gardens. Shrubs (34.6%) were the primary source of medicinal plants, followed by herbs (30%). The Asteraceae came out as a leading family with 12 medicinal species while the Fabaceae followed with nine. Some findings include the predominance of root material used (31%), followed by leaves (29%). This study demonstrates the importance of traditional medicines in the treatment of toothache in Ethiopia. It is essential for the health of users to phytochemically demonstrate the effects of medicinal plants for their possible therapeutic applications. Hence, future phytochemical and pharmaceutical studies should give due consideration on frequently reported medicinal plants in order to produce natural drugs that could be effective in toothache treatment and without side effects.

Preparation of monoethyl fumarate-based molecularly imprinted polymers and their application as a solid-phase extraction sorbent for the separation of scopolamine from tropane alkaloids

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) prepared using conventional functional monomers exhibit poor specific extraction of scopolamine from tropane alkaloids, which hinders their application in separation and purification. In this paper, a novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was prepared by precipitation polymerization using scopolamine as the template, monoethyl fumarate (MFMA) as a functional monomer, and ethylene dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as a cross-linker. The advantages of the supercritical fluid technology for the removal of the template were verified by comparing the efficiency of the swelling method and the Soxhlet extraction method. The prepared MFMA-based MIPs (MFMA-MIPs) showed a high adsorption capacity (49.75 mg g⁻¹) and high selectivity toward scopolamine with a selectivity coefficient of 3.5. ¹H NMR spectroscopy was performed to demonstrate the interactions between the two functional groups of the functional monomer and the template. Lastly, MFMA-MIPs were used as solid phase extraction (SPE) sorbents for scopolamine analysis. It was found that 97.0–107.0% of the template had been extracted using the SPE column from the complex of scopolamine, atropine and anisodamine. The mean recoveries of scopolamine from plant samples were 96.0–106.0% using the established method, which showed a good linearity in the range of 8.0–4.0 × 10⁴ μg L⁻¹. The results showed that MFMA-MIPs could be applied for the separation of scopolamine from tropane alkaloids.

Monoethyl fumarate with two functional groups was introduced to prepare a MIP for the separation of scopolamine from tropane alkaloids.

A modified QuEChERS method coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the simultaneous detection and quantification of scopolamine, L-hyoscyamine, and sparteine residues in animal-derived food products

We developed a modified Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (CEN QuEChERS) extraction method coupled with liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI⁺/MS-MS) to identify and quantify residues of three botanical alkaloids, namely, scopolamine, L-hyoscyamine, and sparteine, in animal-derived foods, including porcine muscle, egg, and milk. A combination of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium buffer and acetonitrile acidified with 0.5% trifluoroacetic acid was used as an extraction solvent, whereas QuEChERS (CEN, 15662) kits and sorbents were applied for cleanup procedures. The proposed method was validated by determining the limits of quantification (LOQs), with values of 1-5 µg/kg achieved for the target analytes in various matrices. Linearity was estimated from matrix-matched calibration curves constructed using six concentration levels ranging from 1- to 6-fold increases in the LOQs of each analyte, and the correlation coefficients (R² ) were ≥0.9869. Recoveries (at three concentration levels of 1-, 2-, and 3-fold increases in the LOQ) of 73-104% were achieved with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ≤7.7% (intra-day and inter-day precision). Ten types of each matrix procured from large markets were evaluated, and all tested samples showed negative results. The current protocol is simple and versatile and can be used for routine detection of plant alkaloids in animal food products.

Enhancing Tropane Alkaloid Production Based on the Functional Identification of Tropine-Forming Reductase in Scopolia lurida, a Tibetan Medicinal Plant

Scopolia lurida, a native herbal plant species in Tibet, is one of the most effective producers of tropane alkaloids. However, the tropane alkaloid biosynthesis in this plant species of interest has yet to be studied at the molecular, biochemical, and biotechnological level. Here, we report on the isolation and characterization of a putative short chain dehydrogenase (SDR) gene. Sequence analysis showed that SlTRI belonged to the SDR family. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that SlTRI was clustered with the tropine-forming reductases. SlTRI and the other TA-biosynthesis genes, including putrescine N-methyltransferase (SlPMT) and hyoscyamine 6β-hydroxylase (SlH6H), were preferably or exclusively expressed in the S. lurida roots. The tissue profile of SlTRI suggested that this gene might be involved in tropane alkaloid biosynthesis. By using GC-MS, SlTRI was shown to catalyze the tropinone reduction to yield tropine, the key intermediate of tropane alkaloids. With the purified recombinant SlTRI from Escherichiacoli, an enzymatic assay was carried out; its result indicated that SlTRI was a tropine-forming reductase. Finally, the role of SlTRI in promoting the tropane alkaloid biosynthesis was confirmed through metabolic engineering in S. lurida. Specifically, hairy root cultures of S. lurida were established to investigate the effects of SlTRI overexpression on tropane alkaloid accumulation. In the SlTRI-overexpressing root cultures, the hyoscyamine contents were 1.7- to 2.9-fold higher than those in control while their corresponding scopolamine contents were likewise elevated. In summary, this functional identification of SlTRI has provided for a better understanding of tropane alkaloid biosynthesis. It also provides a candidate gene for enhancing tropane alkaloid biosynthesis in S. lurida via metabolic engineering.

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

To best of our knowledge this is the first quantitative ethno-medicinal study with the aim of documenting the indigenous knowledge and practices of using plants for malarial therapy in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan. In this Valley, malaria is among the major public health problems but, until now, the population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethno-medicinal data were documented from 63 informants by using semi-structured questionnaires and interviewing the informants about their knowledge of plants regarding malaria and related symptoms. Documented data were evaluated using the quantitative ethno-botanical indices of frequency citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK) and Jaccard index (JI).

RESULTS

A total of 70 plant species belonging to 62 genera and 34 families were recorded as anti-malarial in the study area. Solanaceae was found to be the most cited family with 7 species, followed by Fabaceae, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae with 5 species each. Ocimum americanum and Solanum incanum were the species with the highest relative frequency of citation (RFC =0.25 each) and percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK =25.4% each), followed by Grewia tenax (RFC =0.23, PRK =23.8%), which indicates that these plants are the best species with anti-malarial properties. The most highly cited life form was found to be herbs (56%). The dominant plant part used in preparations were leaves (49%). The main mode of utilization was decoction (47%) followed by infusion (29%). In comparison, maximum similarity index is found in our study with JI (16.83) followed by (13.13). Similarity percentage of plants uses ranges from 0.81 to 16.83 while dissimilarity percentage varies from 0% to 17.65%.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge seven plant species, viz. Withania coagulans, Fagonia cretica, Carthamus oxyacantha, Ehretia obtusifolia, Helianthus annuus, Olea ferruginea and Vitex trifolia, are reported from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. This first ethno-medicinal study highlights potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants found in the Soon Valley, Pakistan. Such investigations could be a subject for in vitro and in vivo anti-plasmodial screening to develop new plant-based antimalarial drugs and can also be evaluated for other biological activities and novel drug discoveries.

Tissue-specific metabolite profiling of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in the root of Macleaya cordata by combining laser microdissection with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Tissue-specific metabolite profiling helps to find trace alkaloids masked during organ analysis, which contributes to understanding the alkaloid biosynthetic pathways in vivo and evaluating the quality of medical plants by morphology. As Macleaya cordata contains diverse types of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), the alkaloid metabolite profiling was carried out on various tissues of the root.

METHODS

Laser microdissection with fluorescence detection was used to recognize and dissect different tissues from the root of M. cordata. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was applied to analyze the trace alkaloids in tissues. These detected alkaloids were elucidated using their accurate molecular weights, MS/MS data, MS fragmentation patterns and the known biosynthetic pathways of BIAs. Finally, the distribution of alkaloids in dissected tissues and whole sections was mapped.

RESULTS

Forty-nine alkaloids were identified from five microdissected tissues, and 24 of them were detected for the first time in M. cordata. Some types of alkaloids occurred specifically in dissected tissues. More alkaloids were detected in the cork and xylem vascular bundles which emit strong fluorescence under fluorescence microscopy. Some of the screened alkaloids were intermediates in sanguinarine and chelerythrine biosynthetic pathways, and others were speculated to be involved in the new branches of biosynthetic pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The integrated method is sensitive, specific and reliable for determining trace alkaloids, which is also a powerful tool for metabolite profiling of tissue-specific BIAs in situ. The present findings should contribute to a better understanding of the biosynthesis of BIAs in M. cordata root and provide scientific evidence for its quality evaluation based on morphological characteristics. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Simultaneous Identification of Four "Legal High" Plant Species in a Multiplex PCR High-Resolution Melt Assay. J Forensic Sci 2016;62:593-601. [PMID: 27957736 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13321]

The international prevalence of "legal high" drugs necessitates the development of a method for their detection and identification. Herein, we describe the development and validation of a tetraplex multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay used to simultaneously identify morning glory, jimson weed, Hawaiian woodrose, and marijuana detected by high-resolution melt using LCGreen Plus^® . The PCR assay was evaluated based on the following: (i) specificity and selectivity-primers were tested on DNA extracted from 30 species and simulated forensic samples, (ii) sensitivity-serial dilutions of the target DNA were prepared, and (iii) reproducibility and reliability-sample replicates were tested and remelted on different days. The assay is ideal for cases in which inexpensive assays are needed to quickly detect and identify trace biological material present on drug paraphernalia that is too compromised for botanical microscopic identification and for which analysts are unfamiliar with the morphology of the emerging "legal high" species.