Determination of 136 pharmaceuticals and hormones in sewage sludge using quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe extraction followed by analysis with liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry

Combining Nontargeted Analysis with Computer-Based Hazard Comparison Approaches to Support Prioritization of Unregulated Organic Contaminants in Biosolids

Biosolids are a byproduct of wastewater treatment that can be beneficially applied to agricultural land as a fertilizer. While U.S. regulations limit metals and pathogens in biosolids intended for land applications, no organic contaminants are currently regulated. Novel techniques can aid in detection, evaluation, and prioritization of biosolid-associated organic contaminants (BOCs). For example, nontargeted analysis (NTA) can detect a broad range of chemicals, producing data sets representing thousands of measured analytes that can be combined with computational toxicological tools to support human and ecological hazard assessment and prioritization. We combined NTA with a computer-based tool from the U.S. EPA, the Cheminformatics Hazard Comparison Module (HCM), to identify and prioritize BOCs present in U.S. and Canadian biosolids (n = 16). Four-hundred fifty-one features were detected in at least 80% of samples, with identities of 92 compounds confirmed or assigned probable structures. These compounds were primarily categorized as endogenous compounds, pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals, and fragrances. Examples of top prioritized compounds were p-cresol and chlorophene, based on human health end points, and fludioxonil and triclocarban, based on ecological health end points. Combining NTA results with hazard comparison data allowed us to prioritize compounds to be included in future studies of the environmental fate and transport of BOCs.

Application of a robust analytical method for quantifying progestins in environmental samples from three Portuguese Estuaries

In the last years, progestins have raised special concerns for their documented negative effects on aquatic species, yet little is known about their environmental levels in surface waters and bioaccumulation in the trophic web. This study aimed to 1) adapt an extraction method for quantifying progestins in freeze-dried matrices, 2) validate the analytical procedure for three matrices: bivalve, polychaete, and crustacean, and 3) characterize levels of the four most prescribed synthetic progestins in key species across three Portuguese estuaries. Through the validated method, progestins were only quantifiable for the crustacean. Values were generally low, peaking with drospirenone values in Ria de Aveiro (1.33 ± 0.26 ng/g ww) and Tagus estuary (1.42 ± 0.55 ng/g ww), while Ria Formosa exhibited the lowest progestin concentrations (< 1 ng/g ww). This study enabled the development of a precise extraction and analytical method for quantifying steroid hormones in three distinct biological matrices.

Assessing emerging and priority micropollutants in sewage sludge: environmental insights and analytical approaches

The application of sewage sludge (SS) in agriculture, as an alternative to manufactured fertilizers, is current practice worldwide. However, as wastewater is collected from households, industries, and hospitals, the resulting sludge could contaminate land with creeping levels of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and microplastics, among others. Thus, the sustainable management of SS requires the development of selective methods for the identification and quantification of pollutants, preventing ecological and/or health risks. This study presents a thorough evaluation of emerging and priority micropollutants in SS, through the lens of environmental insights, by developing and implementing an integrated analytical approach. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction method, coupled with gas chromatography and liquid chromatography, was optimized for the determination of 42 organic compounds. These include organophosphorus pesticides, organochlorine pesticides, pyrethroid pesticides, organophosphate ester flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The optimization of the dispersive-solid phase for clean-up, combined with the optimization of chromatographic parameters, ensured improved sensitivity. Method validation included assessments for recovery, reproducibility, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). Recoveries ranged from 59.5 to 117%, while LODs ranged from 0.00700 to 0.271 µg g-1. Application of the method to seven SS samples from Portuguese wastewater treatment plants revealed the presence of sixteen compounds, including persistent organic pollutants. The quantification of α-endosulfan, an organochlorine pesticide, was consistently observed in all samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.110 to 0.571 µg g-1. Furthermore, the study encompasses the analysis of agronomic parameters, as well as the mineral and metal content in SS samples. The study demonstrates that the levels of heavy metals comply with legal limits. By conducting a comprehensive investigation into the presence of micropollutants in SS, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the environmental and sustainable implications associated with SS management.

Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) as an emerging contaminant of concern: a review

Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) are a group of industrial chemicals used in various consumer products and industrial applications. Due to its large-scale production and use, BUVs have been detected in all environmental matrices. Humans are exposed to BUVs from environmental media, food, personal care products (PCPs), and consumer products. As a result, BUVs are detected in human breast milk, attracting researchers and regulatory bodies worldwide. BUVs such as UV-328 exhibit the characteristics of persistent organic pollutants (POPs); hence, it has been recently listed under Stockholm Convention POP list. The current review focuses on the occurrence of BUVs in the environment with emphasis on persistency, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT). Scarcity of scientific data on BUVs' properties, environmental occurrence, exposure levels, and effects on organisms poses significant challenges to the policymakers and regulatory bodies in adopting management strategies. The need for a science-based integrated framework for risk assessment and management of BUVs is recommended. Considering the potential threat of BUVs to human health and the environment, it is recommended that BUVs should be taken as a subject of priority research. Studies on the degradation and transformation route of BUVs need to be explored for the sound management of BUVs.

Optimization and validation of an extraction method for the analysis of multi-class emerging contaminants in soil and sediment

Analytical methods for the determination of multi-class emerging contaminants are limited for soil and sediment while they are essential to provide a more complete picture of their distribution in the environment and to understand their fate in different environmental compartments. In this paper, we present the development and optimization of an analytical strategy that combines reliable extraction, purification and the analysis using ultra-pressure liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) of 90 emerging organic contaminants including pesticides, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, flame retardants, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and plasticizers in soil and sediment. To extract a wide range of chemicals, the extraction strategy is based on the QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) approach. A number of different options were investigated (buffer, acidification, addition of EDTA, different types and combinations of dispersive SPE etc.) and the effectiveness of the chemical extraction procedure and the clean-up was assessed for two matrices: soil (organic matter content of 9%) and sediment (organic matter content of 1.9%). The method was fully validated for both matrices, in terms of accuracy, linearity, repeatability (intra-day), reproducibility (inter-day), method limits of detection and quantification (LODs and MLOQs, respectively). The final performance showed good accuracy and precision (mean recoveries were between 70 and 120% with relative standard deviations (RSD) less than 20% in most cases), low matrix effects, good linearity for the matrix-matched calibration curve (R2≥0.991) and MLOQs ranged from 0.25 and 10 µg/kg. To demonstrate the applicability and suitability of the validated method, soil and sediment samples from Vietnam, France, Sweden and Mexico were analyzed. The results showed that of the 90 target compounds, a total of 33 were quantified in the sediment and soil samples analyzed. In addition to multi-target analysis, this strategy could be suitable for non-target screening, to provide a more comprehensive view of the contaminants present in the samples.

Simultaneous detection of pesticides and pharmaceuticals in three types of bio-based fertilizers by an improved QuEChERS method coupled with UHPLC-q-ToF-MS/MS

Bio-based fertilizers (BBFs) have the potential to contain both pesticides and pharmaceutical residues, which may pose a threat to soils, crops, and human health. However, no analytical screening method is available currently to simultaneously analyze a wide range of contaminants in the complex origin-dependent matrices of BBFs. To fill this gap, our study tested and improved an original QuEChERS method (OQM) for simultaneously analyzing 78 pesticides and 18 pharmaceuticals in BBFs of animal, plant, and ashed sewage sludge origin. In spiked recovery experiments, 34-58 pharmaceuticals and pesticides were well recovered (recovery of 70-120%) via OQM at spiking concentrations levels of 10 ng/g and 50 ng/g in these three different types of BBFs. To improve the extraction efficiency further, ultrasonication and end-over-end rotation were added based on OQM, resulting in the improved QuEChERS method (IQM) that could recover 57-79 pesticides and pharmaceuticals, in the range of 70-120%. The detection limits of this method were of 0.16-4.32/0.48-12.97 ng/g, 0.03-11.02/0.10-33.06 ng/g, and 0.06-5.18/0.18-15.54 ng/g for animal, plant, and ash-based BBF, respectively. Finally, the IQM was employed to screen 15 BBF samples of various origins. 15 BBFs contained at least one pesticide or pharmaceutical with ibuprofen being frequently detected in at concentration levels of 4.1-181 ng/g. No compounds were detected in ash-based BBFs.

Tailoring the Morphology of Monodisperse Mesoporous Silica Particles Using Different Alkoxysilanes as Silica Precursors

The hard template method for the preparation of monodisperse mesoporous silica microspheres (MPSMs) has been established in recent years. In this process, in situ-generated silica nanoparticles (SNPs) enter the porous organic template and control the size and pore parameters of the final MPSMs. Here, the sizes of the deposited SNPs are determined by the hydrolysis and condensation rates of different alkoxysilanes in a base catalyzed sol-gel process. Thus, tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), tetrapropyl orthosilicate (TPOS) and tetrabutyl orthosilicate (TBOS) were sol-gel processed in the presence of amino-functionalized poly (glycidyl methacrylate-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) (p(GMA-co-EDMA)) templates. The size of the final MPSMs covers a broad range of 0.5-7.3 µm and a median pore size distribution from 4.0 to 24.9 nm. Moreover, the specific surface area can be adjusted between 271 and 637 m² g^-1. Also, the properties and morphology of the MPSMs differ according to the SNPs. Furthermore, the combination of different alkoxysilanes allows the individual design of the morphology and pore parameters of the silica particles. Selected MPSMs were packed into columns and successfully applied as stationary phases in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in the separation of various water-soluble vitamins.

Basic micro-pollutants in sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants in the Northwest Spain: Occurrence and risk assessment of sludge disposal

Sludge is one of the most problematic residues generated during wastewater treatment. Herein, we validate a single-step, sensitive procedure for the determination of a selection of 46 basic micro-pollutants, either used as pharmaceuticals or pesticides, in sludge from municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs), using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry as determination technique. The proposed method permitted to achieve accurate recoveries (values from 70% to 120%, for samples spiked at different concentration levels) using solvent-based calibration standards. This feature, combined with limits of quantification lower than 5 ng g^-1 (dry weight), allowed the rapid and sensitive quantification of target compounds in freeze-dried sludge samples. Out of 46 investigated pollutants, 33 species showed detection frequencies above 85% in a group of 48 sludge samples, obtained from 45 STPs located in the Northwest of Spain. The assessment of eco-toxicological risks associated to sludge disposal as fertilizer in agriculture and/or forestry, considering average concentrations found in sludge samples, highlighted eight pollutants (sertraline, venlafaxine, N-desethyl amiodarone, amiodarone, norsertraline, trazodone, amitriptyline and ketoconazole) representing an environmental hazard based on ratios between predicted soil levels and non-effect concentrations estimated using the equilibrium partition method.

Keystone microbial taxa organize micropollutant-related modules shaping the microbial community structure in estuarine sediments

The fluctuation of environmental conditions drives the structure of microbial communities in estuaries, highly dynamic ecosystems. Microorganisms inhabiting estuarine sediments play a key role in ecosystem functioning. They are well adapted to the changing conditions, also threatened by the presence of pollutants. In order to determine the environmental characteristics driving the organization of the microbial assemblages, we conducted a seasonal survey along the Adour Estuary (Bay of Biscay, France) using 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing. Microbial diversity data were combined with a set of chemical analyses targeting metals and pharmaceuticals. Microbial communities were largely dominated by Proteobacteria (41 %) and Bacteroidota (32 %), showing a strong organization according to season, with an important shift in winter. The composition of microbial communities showed spatial distribution according to three main areas (upstream, middle, and downstream estuary) revealing the influence of the Adour River. Further analyses indicated that the microbial community was influenced by biogeochemical parameters (C_org/N_org and δ¹³C) and micropollutants, including metals (As, Cu, Mn, Sn, Ti, and Zn) and pharmaceuticals (norfloxacin, oxolinic acid and trimethoprim). Network analysis revealed specific modules, organized around keystone taxa, linked to a pollutant type, providing information of paramount importance to understand the microbial ecology in estuarine ecosystems.

Endocrine disrupting activity in sewage sludge: Screening method, microbial succession and cost-effective strategy for detoxification

Sewage sludge (SS) presents a high agronomic potential due to high concentrations of organic matter and nutrients, encouraging its recycling as a soil conditioner. However, the presence of toxic substances can preclude this use. To enable the safe disposal of this waste in agriculture, SS requires additional detoxification to decrease the environmental risks of this practice. Although some alternatives have been proposed in this sense, little attention is provided to eliminating endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). To fill this gap, this study aimed to develop effective and low-cost technology to eliminate EDCs from SS. For this, a detoxification process combining microorganisms and biostimulating agents (soil, sugarcane bagasse, and coffee grounds) was performed for 2, 4, and 6 months with aerobic and anaerobic SSs. The (anti-)estrogenic, (anti-)androgenic, retinoic-like, and dioxin-like activities of SSs samples were verified using yeast-based reporter-gene assays to prove the effectiveness of the treatments. A fractionation procedure of samples, dividing the target sample extract into several fractions according to their polarity, was conducted to decrease the matrix complexity and facilitate the identification of EDCs. A decrease in the abundance and microbial diversity of the SS samples was noted along the biostimulation with the predominance of filamentous fungal species over yeasts and gram-positive bacteria and non-fermenting rods over enterobacteria. Among the 9 EDCs quantified by LC-ESI-MS/MS, triclosan and alkylphenols presented the highest concentrations in both SS. Before detoxification, the studied SSs induced significant agonistic activity, especially at the human estrogen receptor α (hERα) and the human aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The raw anaerobic sludge also activated the androgen (hAR), retinoic acid (RARα), and retinoid X (RXRα) receptors. However, no significant endocrine-disrupting activities were observed after the SS detoxification, showing that the technology applied here efficiently eliminates receptor-mediated toxicity.

Wide-scope target and suspect screening of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs by UPLC-qToF-MS

There is currently a paucity of scientific data in Africa on the analysis and occurrence of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge. In this work, the occurrence of European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive priority substances and wide-range emerging contaminants were investigated and discussed comprehensively in the sewage sludge samples from three different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Lagos, Nigeria. The identification strategy was implemented by target and suspect screening in liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. 250 compounds were identified in the sewage sludge samples from the investigated WWTPs. From 250 detected compounds, 182 compounds were quantified, and 78 compounds significantly show high environmental risk score (calculated from provisional no-effect concentrations values (PNEC) as well as their environmental quality data (EQs)). Most of contaminants detected at high amount belong to pharmaceuticals and are from hospital WWTP. While the highest concentration (72.4 mg kg^-1) was measured for salicylic acid (a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug), antibiotics showed high concentrations up to 24.4 and 28.4 mg kg^-1 for ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin, respectively. Three simple factors including frequency of exceedance, frequency of occurrence and extent of exceedance were used to aid prioritization of these substances in future monitoring campaigns. This work presents the first comprehensive and wide-scope screening of a large number of emerging contaminants in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs.

Determination of pharmaceuticals and metabolites in sludge and hydrochar after hydrothermal carbonization using sonication-QuEChERS extraction method and UHPLC LTQ/Orbitrap MS

Pharmaceuticals (PhACs) are an important group of emerging contaminants that are released continuously in the environment from wastewater treatments plants (WWTPs). They can produce biological effects even though at very low concentrations. Conventional WWTPs are not able to remove or degrade completely emerging pollutants resulting in the presence of PhACs in sewage sludge after wastewater treatment. PhACs are found in sludge at low ppb-ppt levels, and their analysis and detection is a difficult task due to the complexity of sewage sludge matrices. Hydrothermal carbonization is currently being proposed as a suitable conversion technology for sewage sludge management to recover valuable products and to be used for soil amendment. In this work, a modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)-based methodology with a dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) clean-up followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-LTQ/Orbitrap MS), operated in positive ionization mode, was adopted to investigate 33 multiclass pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge and in hydrochar produced after hydrothermal carbonization. The analytical method was first optimized studying various extraction parameters and finally validated in terms of linearity, recovery, intra and inter-day precisions, expanded uncertainty (%U)/Horrat ratio at three spiking levels, matrix-effects (ME), process efficiency (PE), and limits of detection and quantification. The developed methodology fulfilled all analytical requirements and was finally applied to sludge samples from the WWTP of Ioannina city where a group of antibiotics was detected at concentrations up to 15 ng g^-1 and psychiatric drugs such as amisulpride, clozapine, and citalopram were detected at higher concentration levels up to 205, 87.4 and 63.2 ng g^-1, respectively. The method was also applied to hydrothermally treated sludge sample under different reaction conditions. Most of the antibiotic compounds were not detected, and several psychiatric drugs such as mirtazapine, bupropion, valsartan, diazepam, and caffeine were found at concentrations below the LOQ.

Determination of contaminants of emerging concern in raw pig manure as a whole: difference with the analysis of solid and liquid phases separately

The content of veterinary drugs in manure is usually estimated by the amount of residues determined in its solid or liquid phase, individually, which previously required a separation step. As an alternative, a multiresidue method for the analysis of 48 veterinary drugs and other contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in swine raw manure as a whole has been developed and in-house validated in this work. The impact of several experimental factors during ultrasound assisted extraction was assessed. Hence, the use of alumina seemed to especially decrease the matrix effect and improve the overall recovery of drugs, mainly those with a high octanol-water partition coefficient. CECs in the extracts were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. A standard addition-matrix matched calibration was used for quantification. Application of the method to two related samples (raw manure and farm centrifuged raw manure) from a facility revealed that the concentrations of CECs determined in the raw manure by the comprehensive methodology were higher than those calculated by adding the concentrations measured in the solid and liquid phases, separately. This was attributed to the loss of CECs adsorbed on fine particles in the suspension during the sample preparation procedure of the liquid-phase. Furthermore, the decrease of residues in the raw manure when this is centrifuged in the farm to yield compost is shown.

Ultrafiltration Membranes System: A Proposal to Remove Emerging Pollutants in Urban Wastewater

Considering the important role that wastewater reuse plays in the water cycle and in the current water scenario immersed in a severe drought, the search for technologies that allow obtaining quality water for reuse is increasingly relevant. In this sense, the membrane biological reactor (MBR) is an alternative to traditional activated sludge systems, in which the separation of biomass and treatment water is carried out by membrane filtration instead of decantation. This study made it possible to confirm the presence of emerging pollutants in the wastewater entering the WWTPs under study, to study the behavior and performance of MBR systems with hollow fiber membranes and flat membranes in obtaining reclaimed wastewater for subsequent reuse, and to compare it with the degree of elimination obtained in conventional biological treatment. It has been demonstrated that this technology is almost 100% effective in the elimination of nutrients, organic matter, pathogens, organic micropollutants, metals, etc., and has achieved different percentages of success in eliminating emerging pollutants depending on their nature: 35% in insecticides and herbicides, 45% in anxiolytics, psychiatric drugs, and industrial disinfectants, 75% in antibiotics, and around 100% in analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and hormones. It has also contributed to the establishment of monitoring protocols for emerging pollutants in the WWTPs under study and to the evaluation of their risks, as well as the development and implementation of advanced regeneration systems that are economically favorable for increasing the quality of WWTP effluents for their reuse.

Three-dimensional flower-like SnS2 materials for dispersive solid-phase extraction of endocrine-disrupting phenols

In this study, three-dimensional flower-like tin disulfide materials were prepared, and a highly efficient dispersive solid-phase extraction method was developed using the obtained three-dimensional tin disulfide adsorbents for the preconcentration and determination of six endocrine-disrupting phenols in combination with high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. Several important experimental parameters influencing extraction efficiency were investigated, including the amount of adsorbent, ultrasound time, sample solution pH, sample volume, type of elution solvent, desorption time, and the number of desorption times. Under the optimized experimental conditions, the developed method showed good linearity with the determination coefficients of 0.993-0.998 in the linear range of 0.5-400 ng/ml and low limits of detection in the range of 0.15-1.0 ng/ml, as well as satisfactory intra-day and inter-day precisions with relative standard deviations of 0.1-9.8%. Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied for the enrichment and determination of trace endocrine-disrupting phenols in milk, tea beverage, and plastic bottled water samples, and acceptable recoveries were obtained from 70.1% to 119.1% under four different spiked concentration levels. The results showed that the three-dimensional tin disulfide materials had great potential for the extraction of endocrine-disrupting phenols contaminants in environmental and food samples.

Desorption of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs from different stabilized sludge types across pH

Pharmaceutical and illicit drug residues in sewage sludge may present important risks following direct application to agricultural soils, potentially resulting in uptake by plants. Leaching/desorption tests were performed on different types of stabilized sewage sludge originating from multiple treatment technologies in the Slovak Republic. Acid rain and base-rich condition of soil with different pH conditions were simulated to model the effect of widely varying pH (pH 2, 4, 7, 9, and 12) on the leaching/desorption of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs. Twenty-nine of 93 target analytes were found above the limit of quantification in sludge or associated leachates. Total desorbed amounts of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs ranged from 810 to 4000 µg/kg, and 110 to 3600 µg/kg of the dry mass of anaerobic and aerobic sludge, respectively. Desorbed fractions were calculated as these values are normalized to initial sludge concentration and, therefore, were more suitable for qualitative description of the behavior of individual compounds. Using principal component analysis, qualitative analysis of the desorbed fraction confirmed the differences among sludge types, pharmaceuticals, and desorption pH. Desorbed fractions could not be related to the octanol/water distribution coefficient. Desorbed fractions also did not reflect the expected ionization of studied molecules unless converted into their relative values. Generally, the lowest mobility was observed within the environmentally relevant pH range of 4-9, and high pH generally resulted in high desorption, especially in anaerobically stabilized sludges.

Rapid screening and confirmation of 86 illegally added chemicals in fishery drugs by ultra performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry

建立了超高效液相色谱-四极杆-飞行时间质谱法快速筛查与确证渔药中86种非法添加禁限用药物的方法。渔药以80%(v/v)乙腈水溶液进行提取,通过稀释降低基质效应,采用ACQUITY PREMIER HSS T3色谱柱进行分离,以甲醇和0.1%甲酸水溶液作为流动相进行梯度洗脱,采用电喷雾双喷离子源(Dual AJS ESI)正离子模式分析检测。建立了86种药物的一级精确质量数据库和二级碎片质谱库。在全扫描采集模式下,以化合物的色谱保留时间、精确质量数、同位素分布和同位素丰度比定性;在Target MS/MS采集模式下,通过二级碎片离子的匹配进一步确证化合物,以准分子离子峰的峰面积定量,实现渔药样品中多目标药物的快速定性定量分析。86种药物在各自的线性范围内均呈现良好的线性关系,相关系数均大于0.99,中草药制剂和抗生素粉剂的定量限(LOQ)范围分别为1~15 mg/kg和5~75 mg/kg,添加回收率范围为76.8%~112.1%,相对标准偏差(RSD, n=3)小于11.7%。该方法快速、简便、准确、灵敏,适用于不同种类渔药中禁限用非法添加药物的高通量筛查。将该方法应用于浙江省渔用投入品质量安全监督抽检项目中,共筛查60个样品,其中8种中草药制剂筛查出说明书中未明确标明的药物成分,1种抗生素粉剂未检出有效成分。该研究为渔药的质量安全监控提供了有效的技术手段。

Indigenous Bacillus paramycoides spp. and Alcaligenes faecalis: sustainable solution for bioremediation of hospital wastewater

Farmers near towns and cities are using a wide range of highly polluted wastewaters for crop irrigation in Pakistan due to severe freshwater shortage. The present study aimed to promote indigenous bacterial strains isolated from domestic, hospital, textile, pharmaceutical and mixed wastewaters to remove contaminants and colour and render these wastewaters safer for irrigation. Thirty seven bacterial strains were isolated from five wastewater samples collected from different sites in Lahore, Pakistan. Under optimal growth conditions, three isolates (D6, D7 and P1) showed >93% decolourisation potential in the treatment of hospital wastewater. 16S rDNA sequencing identified two of these isolates (D6 and D7) as showing 100% and 99.86% homology to Bacillus paramycoides spp. - novel strains from B. cereus group. Isolate P1 showed 97.47% homology to Alcaligenes faecalis. GCMS analysis of the untreated hospital wastewater revealed the presence of pharmaceutic pollutants, i.e. Phenol (876 µg/L), Salicylic acid (48 µg/L), Caffeine (7 µg/L), Naproxen (23 µg/L), Octadecene (185 µg/L) and Diazepam (14 µg/L). The analysis of treated hospital wastewaters showed percentage degradation of pharmaceutic pollutants (100%-43%) and significant reduction in the BOD₅ (91%-68%), COD (89%-52%) and heavy metals concentrations. These strains therefore can represent a low-cost and low-tech alternative to bioremediate complex matrices of hospital wastewater prior to crop irrigation to support the achievement of clean re-usable water in developing countries like Pakistan.

Migration, Transformation and Removal of Macrolide Antibiotics in The Environment: A Review

Macrolide antibiotics (MAs), as a typical emerging pollutant, are widely detected in environmental media. When entering the environment, MAs can interfere with the growth, development and reproduction of organisms, which has attracted extensive attention. However, there are few reviews on the occurrence characteristics, migration and transformation law, ecotoxicity and related removal technologies of MAs in the environment. In this work, combined with the existing relevant research, the migration and transformation law and ecotoxicity characteristics of MAs in the environment are summarized, and the removal mechanism of MAs is clarified. Currently, most studies on MAs are based on laboratory simulation experiments, and there are few studies on the migration and transformation mechanism between multiphase states. In addition, the cost of MAs removal technology is not satisfactory. Therefore, the following suggestions are put forward for the future research direction. The migration and transformation process of MAs between multiphase states (such as soil-water-sediment) should be focused on. Apart from exploring the new treatment technology of MAs, the upgrading and coupling of existing MAs removal technologies to meet emission standards and reduce costs should also be concerned. This review provides some theoretical basis and data support for understanding the occurrence characteristics, ecotoxicity and removal mechanism of MAs.

Assessment of the occurrence of 455 pharmaceutical compounds in sludge according to their physical and chemical properties: A review

Sludge agronomical reuse is of major interest due to the beneficial contribution of nutrients. However, it implies the introduction of unregulated pharmaceuticals into amended-soils and creates a controversial issue about sludge management. To limit their dissemination, it is essential to identify the compounds of interest and understand their attenuation mechanisms through the sludge processes. This paper summarizes the knowledge on 455 investigated pharmaceuticals among 32 therapeutical categories in amendable sludge matrices. It contributes to enlarging the list of commonly quantified compounds to 305 residues including 84 additional compounds compared to previous reviews. It highlights that sorption appears as the main mechanism controlling the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in sludge matrices and shows the considerable residual levels of pharmaceuticals reaching several mg/kg in dry weight. Antibiotics, stimulants, and antidepressants show the highest concentrations up to 232 mg/kg, while diuretics, anti-anxieties or anticoagulants present the lowest concentrations reaching up to 686 µg/kg. Collected data show the increase in investigated compounds as antifungals or antihistamines, and underline emerging categories like antidiabetics, antivirals, or antiarrhythmics. The in-depth analysis of the substantial database guides onto the pharmaceuticals that are the most likely to occur in these amendable matrices to assist future research.

Improvement of the QuEChERS extraction step by matrix-dispersion effect and application on beta-lactams analysis in wastewater sludge by LC-MS/MS

In the last decade, beta-lactams use in veterinary and human medicine increased to represent today about 15% of the overall consumption. Beta-lactams tend to degrade and metabolize in the environment. Therefore, analytical methods must be sensitive enough to quantify low concentrations of the parent molecules and also allow detection of metabolites. This study presents the development of a modified QuEChERS method for the extraction of seven beta-lactams and one degradation product (Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Cefapirin, Cefoperazone, Cefquinome, Ceftiofur, Cloxacillin, and Amoxicillin-Diketopiperazine) from sewage treatment plant sludge and their analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Before the QuEChERS extraction, a dispersion step of the sample with EDTA-treated sand was optimized and added, allowing to facilitate the exchanges between the matrix and the extraction solvent. Then, to decrease the interferences present in the extract, a fast and efficient pass-through SPE was implemented. The optimized method was validated and showed satisfactory performances, in adequacy with the analysis of beta-lactams in solid environmental matrices. Limits of quantification lower than 20 ng.g^-1 for all analytes, high accuracy (96%-114% quantification on spiked samples nominal concentration) and interday precision (2%-12% RSD) were obtained. This method was then applied to eight sludge samples. Cefapirin and amoxicillin-diketopiperazine were detected in four samples each, at concentrations of 10.2-53.3 ng.g^-1 and 3.0-9.5 ng.g^-1 respectively. Thus, the developed method is very effective for the extraction of beta-lactams from environmental solid matrices.

Identification and determination of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge driven by UPLC-QTOF-MS data mining

Sludge from sewage treatment plants (STPs) is recognized as a sink of moderate to high lipophilic compounds resistant to biodegradation. Herein, we investigate the presence of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge combining the information provided by mass spectrometry detection, following ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), with the use of an accurate spectral database of pesticides and pharmaceuticals. In a first step, the performance of matrix solid-phase dispersion, as sample preparation technique, and two non-target data acquisition strategies (data dependent, DDA, and data independent analysis modes, DIA), used in combination with a UPLC quadrupole time-of-flight system, are assessed using a selection of deuterated compounds added either to freeze-dried sludge samples, or to sludge extracts. Possibilities and limitations of both modes are discussed. Following the DDA approach, a group of 68 micropollutants was identified in sludge from different STPs. Some of them are reported in this compartment for the first time. Finally, semi-quantitative concentration data are reported for a group of 37 pollutants in samples obtained from 16 STPs. Out of them, 10 pharmaceuticals, showing detection frequencies and median sludge residues above 50% and 100 ng g^-1, respectively; are highlighted as pollutants to be monitored in sludge in order to understand their behaviour during the wastewater treatment.

Development and validation of QuEChERS-based extraction for quantification of nine micropollutants in wastewater treatment plant

A modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method was established for simultaneous quantification of eight pharmaceutical molecules (2-hydroxyibuprofen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, propranolol, ofloxacin, oxazepam, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine) and caffeine in environmental matrices. Analysis was performed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS-MS). Quantification was performed by using the ¹³C internal standard method for each molecule. Two methods were firstly optimized on freeze-dried waste activated sludge and then applied and validated on real complex matrices, which have contrasted physicochemical properties, i.e., clarified wastewater and primary sludge. The combination of acetate buffer with MgSO₄ (protocol A) and citrate buffer with Na₂SO₄ (protocol B) was found necessary to recover the nine targeted compounds. Adding a higher salts quantity of Na₂SO₄ (protocol B) compared to MgSO₄ (protocol A) is crucial to increase the ionic strength of the aqueous solution and to obtain comparable extraction recoveries of the targeted molecules. Adding two times solvent volume to the aqueous phase leads to increased absolute recovery for all molecules and both protocols. After demonstration of the final protocol's performance on the control matrix, its robustness was tested on the matrices of interest. As a result, the two proposed detection methods exhibit good reproducibility, high sensitivity, and high reliability.

Sewage sludge in agriculture - the effects of selected chemical pollutants and emerging genetic resistance determinants on the quality of soil and crops - a review

In line with sustainable development principles and in order to combat climate change, which contributes to progressive soil depletion, various solutions are being sought to use treated sewage sludge as a soil amendment to improve soil quality and enrich arable soils with adequate amounts of biogenic compounds. This review article focuses on the effects of the agricultural use of biosolids on the environment. The article reviews the existing knowledge on selected emerging contaminants in treated sewage sludge and describes the impact of these pollutants on the environment and living organisms based on 183 publications selected from over 16,000 papers on related topics published over the last ten years. This study deals not only with chemical contaminants but also genetic determinants of resistance to these compounds. Current research has questioned the agricultural use of biosolids due to the presence of mutual interactions between antibiotics, heavy metals, the genetic determinants of resistance (antibiotic resistance genes - ARGs and heavy metal resistance genes - HMRGs) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as the risks associated with their transfer to the environment. This study emphasizes the need for more extensive legal regulations that account for other pollutants of environmental concern (PEC), particularly in countries where sewage sludge is applied in agriculture most extensively. Future research should focus on more effective methods of eliminating PEC from sewage sludge, especially from the sludge that is used to fertilize agricultural land, because even small amounts of these micropollutants can have serious implications for the health and life of humans and animals.

Diclofenac and Ibuprofen Determination in Sewage Sludge Using a QuEChERS Approach: Occurrence and Ecological Risk Assessment in Three Nigerian Wastewater Treatment Plants

A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method was optimized for the extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) diclofenac and ibuprofen from sewage sludge. Dispersive-solid phase extraction (d-SPE) was employed for sample clean-up. Instrumental analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Ecological risk was assessed for four trophic levels: fish, daphnia, algae and bacteria. The method limits of quantification for diclofenac and ibuprofen were 0.43 µg g^- 1 and 0.45 µg g^- 1, respectively. Correlation coefficients were above 0.999. Extraction recoveries ranged from 70 to 118 % and satisfactory inter-day reproducibility (% RSD) of < 18 % was obtained. Diclofenac and ibuprofen were measured up to 1.02 µg g^- 1 and 6.6 µg g^- 1, respectively in sewage sludge from three Nigerian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Ibuprofen posed high risk to fish, daphnia, algae and bacteria. This work presents the first report on the ecological risk assessment of diclofenac and ibuprofen in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs.

QuEChERS Approach for the Analysis of Three Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics in Wastewater: Concentration Profiles and Ecological Risk in Two Nigerian Hospital Wastewater Treatment Plants

Hospital wastewater is regarded as a primary and very important source of antibiotics in the aquatic environment. Studies on the analysis, occurrence, and ecological risk assessment of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in wastewater are still limited in Africa. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction method was optimized and applied for determination of three fluoroquinolone antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin) in wastewater from two Nigerian hospital wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and effluent receiving water. Separation, detection, and quantification of target fluoroquinolone antibiotics were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Ecological risk of the three fluoroquinolone antibiotics was evaluated for three trophic levels: fish, daphnid, and algae. The method LODs were 4.1 µg L^-1, 7.0 µg L^-1, and 18.5 µg L^-1 for ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin, respectively. Satisfactory recoveries and precisions were achieved, in addition to the correlation coefficients of greater than 0.993. Target fluoroquinolones were quantified in influents up to 228 µg L^-1 (UCH influent) for ciprofloxacin, 561 µg L^-1 (Ijaiye influent) for norfloxacin, and 198 µg L^-1 (UCH influent) for ofloxacin. Norfloxacin had the highest concentration (386 µg L^-1) in effluent receiving water. All three fluoroquinolones posed low risk to fish, whereas ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin presented moderate risk to daphnid and algae. To the best of our knowledge, this work presents the first data on the occurrence and risk assessment of the target fluoroquinolones in wastewater from Nigerian hospital WWTPs. The findings revealed the importance of developing local and nationwide surveys of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in the Nigerian aquatic environment.

Approach to the Dynamic of Carbamazepine and its Main Metabolites in Soil Contamination through the Reuse of Wastewater and Sewage Sludge

The release of pharmaceutically active compounds to the soils through the application of sewage sludge and the irrigation with wastewater, or even with surface water, is constant. The adsorption of these compounds onto the soil is one of the key factors affecting their fate in the environment and their potential environmental risks. In this work, the adsorption of carbamazepine (CBZ) and its metabolites, 3-hydroxy-carbamazepine (3OH-CBZ), carbamazepine-10,11-dihydro-10,11-epoxide (EP-CBZ), and 10,11-dihydro-10-hydroxycarbamazepine (10OH-CBZ), in three Mediterranean soils was evaluated using single-solute and four-solute experiments. The highest adsorptions were measured for 3OH-CBZ, followed by CBZ, EP-CBZ, and 10OH-CBZ, in that order. A high influence of the physicochemical characteristics of the compounds, pH, and soil characteristics in the adsorption of the studied compounds was observed and corroborated by the statistical analysis of the results. Moreover, a good fit was observed in the three isotherm models evaluated (linear, Freundlich, and Langmuir) in single-solute experiments (R² > 0.90). However, a decrease of the measured adsorptions and a worse fit to the isotherm models were observed in the case of multiple-solute experiments. This could be mainly due to the competition established between the studied compounds for the active sites of the soils.

Sample pre-treatment and analytical methodology for the simultaneous determination of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in sewage sludge

This work describes the design, optimization and validation of an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of 14 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in sewage sludge. A thorough optimization of the sample pre-treatment was carried out. As a result, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was combined with an in-situ clean-up stage and a filtration step. A combination of MilliQ® water/MeOH 95:5 (v/v) adjusted to pH 9 turned out to be the optimal solvent mixture for extraction. The instrumental part of the method presents a significant novelty based on a fully automated sample preparation for the analysis of PPCPs. It consisted of a direct immersion solid phase microextraction followed by on-fiber derivatization, online coupled to gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (DI-SPME-On-fiber derivatization - GC-MS). An isotope dilution approach was used for quantifying, which conferred high reliability to the method. This methodology was validated for 10 compounds with good analytical performance, limit of detection below 20 ng g^-1 and absolute recovery in the range of 30-70% for most of the compounds. It supposes an ecological analytical alternative for many routine analysis laboratories around the world. The developed method was applied to different real samples generated in both a pilot-scale thermal hydrolysis treatment plant and an anaerobic digester operated in mesophilic conditions. Salicylic acid and naproxen were found at concentrations above 1000 ng g^-1.

Influence of the UV-Vis irradiation on the acute toxicity to zebrafish and mutagenicity of the selected psychotropic drugs

The influence of the UV-Vis radiation on the toxicity of agomelatine, loxapine, clozapine and tiapride was studied. The phototransformation procedure was conducted with the use of simulated solar radiation. In the case of each compound irradiation time necessary to decompose half of the initial concentration was chosen. The embryotoxicity and acute toxicity were evaluated using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and larvae. The mutagenicity assay was done with the use of a micro-plate Ames test. Generally, the embryotoxicity decreased after the irradiation procedure. The obtained results showed that tiapride is the least toxic compound to zebrafish, however, its toxicity toward larvae increases after the irradiation. Similarly, the mutagenic potential of the mixture of tiapride photoproducts is higher than in the case of parent compound. The phototransformation of loxapine resulted in the change of the acute toxicity profile and increased the rate of reverse mutations in the Ames test. Oppositely, the irradiation of agomelatine caused the decrease of mutagenic potential and acute toxicity was also lower in the postirradiated mixture. The phototransformation of clozapine did not alter the mutagenicity and decreased the acute toxicity to the zebrafish larvae. In silico calculations showed a satisfactory prediction ability in some instances, especially in the case of mutagenic potential of the tiapride phototransformation products.

Occurrence of the main metabolites of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in sludge stabilization treatments

In Europe, approximately 40% of sludge yearly produced in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is applied in agricultural lands as organic amendment, especially in arid regions. Sludge tends to concentrate wastewater pollutants. Many of them are not removed by sludge stabilization treatments and, as a result, they could originate adverse effects on soils, vegetation, animals, and humans. Although sludge stabilization treatments play an important role in removal contaminants from sludge and, therefore, in preventing contaminant discharges onto soils, there is scarce information about the occurrence of these compounds in these treatments. This fact is especially acute for emerging pollutants and, particularly, their metabolites. In this work, seven pharmaceuticals and personal care products, and their main metabolites, have been monitored in five different stabilization treatments: anaerobic and aerobic digestion, dehydration, composting, and lagooning. Sixteen compounds were measured in the analysed samples. Their distribution was similar in primary sludge, in spite of the different geographic locations of the WWTPs, The distribution was in accordance with the metabolic ratios of most of the studied compounds. Different behaviour was observed depending on the compound, for example, CBZ, 3-OH-CBZ, DIC, and 4-OH-DIC were highly persistent in all studied stabilization technologies whereas CAF, PX showed high degradability. Most of the studied compounds were measured in the final product of the sludge stabilization processes evaluated. This fact shows the necessity to improve the knowledge about the presence of these compounds in sludge intended to be applied onto soil and about the potential ecotoxicological risks of these compounds.

Process type is the key driver of the fate of organic micropollutants during industrial scale treatment of organic wastes

Organic micropollutants (OMPs) such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nonylphenols and pharmaceutical products are ubiquitous in organic wastes generated by most human activities. Those wastes are mainly recycled by land spreading, most often after treatments, such as liming, dewatering, composting or anaerobic digestion. It has been shown essentially at lab scales that biological treatments have an effect on the removal of some OMPs. However, less is known on the role of each step of industrial treatment lines combining physico-chemical and biological treatments on the OMP fate and removal. The present study focuses on the impact of waste treatment on the fate of 53 OMPs along 10 industrial treatment lines treating urban, agricultural wastes or mixtures. The combination of studying a diversity of organic wastes and of OMPs with different characteristics (solubility, ionic charges, hydrophobicity etc.), sampling in situ industrial sites, quantifying native OMP concentrations and looking at each step of complete treatment lines allows for a global and representative view of the OMP fate in the French organic waste treatment sector. Less studied wastes, i.e. territorial mixtures, revealed intermediate OMP contents and compositions, between urban and agricultural wastes. Dewatering and liming, usually dismissed, had a noticeable effect on concentrations. Anaerobic digestion and composting had significant effects on the removal of all pollutant families. Combination of processes enhanced most OMP dissipation. Here we showed for the first time that the process type rather than the waste origin affects dissipation of organic micropollutants. Such data could be used to build and validate dynamic models for the fate of OMPs on solid waste treatment plants.

Determination of 19 anthelmintics in environmental water and sediment using an optimized PLE and SPE method coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS

A sensitive quantification method using pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed for determination of 19 anthelmintic drugs (ADs) belonging to seven structural groups (Benzimidazoles, Diphenylsulfides, Imidazothiazoles, Hexahydropyrazines, Macrocylic lactones, Salicylanilides, Tetrahydropyrimidines) in environmental water and sediment samples. Eleven SPE cartridges, sample pH, elution solvents were tested to determine the optimal conditions for extraction. Among these investigated SPE types, the best recoveries for 19 target ADs were obtained from Oasis HLB cartridge with 37-102%, 45-103%, 37-88%, 28-82% and 31-90% for spiked river water, tap water, rainwater, wastewater, and sediment respectively (with RSD < 15%), except for closantel. The 19 ADs were separated within 10 min by a BEH C18 column and monitored in both positive and negative ions modes with switching electrospray ionization source. The cross-talk interferences were solved by identification of secondary mass spectrum of substances through MRM-IDA-EPI scanning using Qtrap. These interference peaks could be efficiently eliminated by setting MRM segments or using Qtrap to obtain tertiary fragmented information. The developed methods were satisfactory in terms of linearity, accuracy, and precision, and used eight isotopically labeled compounds as internal standards to correct matrix effects. Method quantification limit (MQL) for 19 ADs was below 1.1 ng/L, 0.4 ng/L, 5.4 ng/L and 2.3 ng/g for river water, tap water, wastewater, and sediment, respectively. The validated method was successfully used to investigate the occurrence of anthelmintics in water and sediment samples from Chengdu, China. All ADs were detected in environment with the concentrations at ng/L level.

Cytostatic compounds in sludge and sediment: extraction and determination by a combination of microwave-assisted extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS

Cytostatic compounds are an important group of micro-pollutants since they are used to kill cells or stop cell division. For this reason, they are also considered mutagenic. Several cytostatic compounds have been detected in hospital effluents, in the influents and effluents of wastewater treatment plants and even in river water. However, their detection in solid matrices is very scarce. In this work, we have developed a new procedure based on microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) for the extraction of cytostatic compounds from sludge and sediment before determination by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). To develop this procedure, we have chosen a group of eight widely used cytostatic compounds and carried out a systematic experimental design to optimize the extraction conditions. Under these optimal conditions, the studied cytostatic compounds are extracted with good sensitivity, with recoveries ranging from 65 to 122% in sludge and recoveries varying between 49 and 109% in sediment, with the exception of etoposide, which has a lower recovery from these types of samples. The limits of detection were from 0.42 to 79.8 ng g^-1 in sludge and from 0.10 to 87.5 ng g^-1 in sediment. Intraday and interday relative standard deviations (RSDs) were below 15% and 18%, respectively, in both matrices at the tested concentrations. The total procedure was applied to samples of sludge taken from the main wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of the island of Gran Canaria (Spain) and for sediment samples obtained close to the marine outfalls of different wastewater treatment plants for the same island. Graphical abstract.

Simultaneous analysis of multiclass antibiotic residues in complex environmental matrices by liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry

A simultaneous extraction and cleanup method was optimized and validated for the determination of 40 antibiotics from cephalosporin, fluoroquinolone, lincosamide, macrolide, nitroimidazole, quinolone, sulfonamide and tetracycline groups in sediments by liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method involved hydration of freeze-dried sediment sample (2.0 g) with 2.5 ml of 0.1 M Na-EDTA McIlvaine buffer and extraction with 5 ml of MeOH and MeCN (1:3 v/v) followed by dispersive solid phase extraction by using 100 mg mix of C18 and PSA (1:2 w/w) and 50 mg MgSO₄ prior to LC-MS/MS analysis. The method was validated for 10, 20, 50 and 100 µg/kg spiking levels by using blank sediment sample obtained from a drinking water reservoir according to the guidelines of European Commission Decision (2002) 2002/657/EC. The method produced clean extracts with generally low matrix effect during LC-MS/MS analysis. The mean recoveries ranged between 24-162%, 48-151%, 51-159%, and 50-149% for 10, 20, 50 and 100 µg/kg spiking levels, respectively, with acceptable precision. The analytical method was sensitive enough to achieve 0.01-34.3 µg/kg and 0.03-115 µg/kg limits of detection and quantitation, respectively. The scope of the method was demonstrated by analyzing complex solid environmental matrices (chicken manure, swine manure, poultry feed and soil) spiked at 10, 20, 50 and 100 µg/kg levels. The method was also applied for the antibiotic analysis in samples with incurred residues. Different matrices in the order of the magnitude as sediments < poultry feed < swine manure < soil < chicken manure were detected with the residues of fluoroquinolone, macrolide, sulfonamide and tetracycline antibiotics.

Pharmaceuticals in source separated sanitation systems: Fecal sludge and blackwater treatment

This study investigated, for the first time, the occurrence and fate of 29 multiple-class pharmaceuticals (PhACs) in two source separated sanitation systems based on: (i) batch experiments for the anaerobic digestion (AD) of fecal sludge under mesophilic (37 °C) and thermophilic (52 °C) conditions, and (ii) a full-scale blackwater treatment plant using wet composting and sanitation with urea addition. Results revealed high concentrations of PhACs in raw fecal sludge and blackwater samples, with concentrations up to hundreds of μg L^-1 and μg kg^-1 dry weight (dw) in liquid and solid fractions, respectively. For mesophilic and thermophilic treatments in the batch experiments, average PhACs removal rates of 31% and 45%, respectively, were observed. The average removal efficiency was slightly better for the full-scale blackwater treatment, with 49% average removal, and few compounds, such as atenolol, valsartan and hydrochlorothiazide, showed almost complete degradation. In the AD treatments, no significant differences were observed between mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. For the full-scale blackwater treatment, the aerobic wet composting step proved to be the most efficient in PhACs reduction, while urea addition had an almost negligible effect for most PhACs, except for citalopram, venlafaxine, oxazepam, valsartan and atorvastatin, for which minor reductions (on average 25%) were observed. Even though both treatment systems reduced initial PhACs loads considerably, significant PhAC concentrations remained in the treated effluents, indicating that fecal sludge and blackwater fertilizations could be a relevant vector for dissemination of PhACs into agricultural fields and thus the environment.

Ecotoxicological QSAR modelling of organic chemicals against Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata using consensus predictions approach

The present study provides robust consensus quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models developed from 334 organic chemicals covering a wide chemical domain for the prediction of effective concentrations of chemicals for 50% and 10% inhibition of algal growth. Only 2D descriptors with definite physicochemical meaning were employed for QSAR model building, whereas development, validation and interpretation were achieved following the strict Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) recommended guidelines. Genetic algorithm along with stepwise approach was used in feature selection while the final QSAR models were derived using partial least squares regression technique. The applicability domain of the developed models was also checked. The obtained consensus models were then used to predict 64 organic chemicals having no definite observed responses while the confidence of predictions was checked by the 'prediction reliability indicator' tool. The developed models should be applicable for data gap filling in case of new or untested organic chemicals provided they fall within the domain of the model and can also be implemented to design safer alternatives to the environment.

Rapid simultaneous determination of 160 drugs in urine and blood of livestock and poultry by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

In order to address the specific question of food safety in livestock and poultry, it is imperative to monitor veterinary drugs at every moment in the process of livestock and poultry breeding. Thus, multi-residue analysis of a wide variety of drugs using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) has become a tool of critical significance, especially for veterinary drug monitoring programs. A total of 160 compounds, belonging to 17 different families of veterinary drugs, were investigated in the urine and blood of livestock and poultry. Drug samples were extracted using a slightly acidic acetonitrile solution. The QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) preparation method, combined with dispersive solid phase extraction (d-SPE) was compared with the approach of solid phase extraction (SPE). In the end, the QuEChERS extraction procedure was selected to reduce matrix effects and efficiently extract target veterinary drugs, and d-SPE was applied as a cleanup step. Electrospray ionization coupled with positive dynamic multiple reaction monitoring (dMRM) was utilized for the analysis of 160 different drugs in a single chromatographic run of 24 min. The efficiency of this method was evaluated using 7 matrices (pig blood, cattle blood, sheep blood, chicken blood, pig urine, cattle urine, and sheep urine). Good linearity was obtained for the analytes in a concentration range of 1-100 ng/mL, with correlation coefficients higher than 0.990. Most of the 160 drugs studied gave estimated limits of detection (LOQs) of 1 ng/mL, with some LOQs reaching as much as 5 ng/mL. The mean recoveries at four spike-in levels of 1, 5, 10, and 50 ng/mL, ranged from 60% to 120%. The intra-day precision measurements had coefficients of variation (n = 6) <15%, and the inter-day precision measurements were below 25%. Our method was applied in real samples and proved to be adequate for routine analysis. The proposed method proved to be simple, rapid and reliable for monitoring 160 drugs in the urine and blood of livestock and poultry, and can also be used for food safety monitoring.

Analyzing a broader spectrum of endocrine active organic contaminants in sewage sludge with high resolution LC-QTOF-MS suspect screening and QSAR toxicity prediction

Endocrine active contaminants (EACs) in environmental samples can pose a range of toxicological threats to ecosystems, especially through their impacts on reproductive pathways mediated by the estrogen receptor. The physicochemical properties of known organic EACs vary greatly and typically require different sample preparation techniques to identify different classes of compounds. EAC sources are similarly diverse, including both endogenous compounds and anthropogenic chemicals found in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and their transformation products, which are often disposed of to sewers at their end of use. Looking for EACs in sewage sludge proposes a bottom-up, or end-of-use and treatment approach to discover environmentally relevant EACs, since many EACs accumulate in sludges even after application of robust wastewater treatment processes. This study demonstrates an extraction and analytical method capable of detecting a broad spectrum of known and suspected EACs via High Resolution Liquid Chromatography Quadropole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) suspect screening of fourteen California sewage sludge samples. Spike-recovery experiments were performed using twelve carefully selected surrogates to assess different extraction solvents, sample weights, extraction pH values, procedures for combining extracts with different extraction pH's, and solid phase extraction cartridges. Using LC-QTOF-MS, identifications of several other organic compounds in the samples were made, a goal unachievable with unit resolution mass spectrometry. Suspect screening of California sludge samples discovered 118 compounds including hormones, pharmaceuticals, phosphate flame retardants, recreational drugs, antimicrobials, and pesticides. Additionally, 22 of these identified compounds are predicted to interfere with estrogen receptors or other reproductive/developmental pathways based on the VEGA QSAR toxicity prediction model.

Simultaneous analysis of multiclass contaminants of emerging concern in sediments by liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry

A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)-based extraction and simultaneous dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) clean-up method was developed for contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in sediment samples. Hydration with a phosphate buffer (pH 2.0) and salting out with NaCl and MgSO₄ facilitated the extraction and liquid-liquid portioning of the aqueous and organic phases. Cleanup of the extracts was achieved by florisil and C18 (1:1) sorbents in dSPE with minimal compromise of the analytes. The extracts were clean enough for determination by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The procedure was validated for preservatives, blood lipid regulators, analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs, plasticizers, and other classes of CECs in sediment matrix spiked at 6 levels between 1- and 40-fold concentrations for CECs of varying analytical sensitivities. The recovery values were generally between approximately 27 and 120% and the relative standard deviation (%RSD) values were below 20% at 10- , 20- , and 40-fold spiking levels, albeit the recoveries for some analytes dropped at low spike concentrations. The method showed high sensitivity where the method detection limits (MDLs) were at low ppb levels for the majority of the analytes that ranged between 0.002 and 1.93 µg/kg. The method performance was also compared with well-established US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Method 1694 by analyzing sediment samples collected from Yundang Lagoon (Xiamen, China) with field-incurred CEC residues. The sediment samples were detected with residues of parabens, gemfibrozil, ketoprofen, naproxen, fenoprofen, diclofenac, miconazole, carbamazepine, benzophenon-3, glibenclamide, sildinafil citrate, and some bisphenol analogues. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1409-1422. © 2019 SETAC.