A simultaneous derivatization of 3-monochloropropanediol and 1,3-dichloropropane with hexamethyldisilazane–trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate at room temperature for efficient analysis of food sample analysis

Analysis of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP occurrence in mayonnaise: A probabilistic risk assessment of dietary exposure for Iranians

Mayonnaise is a commonly used oil-in-water emulsion food product. Due to their toxicological properties/genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, chloropropanols' oral exposure has raised concerns over the past decade. The present study reports the occurrence level of free forms of 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in mayonnaise samples and the risk of oral exposure to these chemicals through consumption of the analyzed samples. Mayonnaise (low- and high-fat, from 6 brands, totally 120 samples) were analyzed for 1,3-DCP and 3-MCPD by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The mean level of chemicals was higher in the high-fat samples, with no significant difference among the brands. Generally, 1,3-DCP level was significantly lower in both high-fat and low-fat samples compared to 3-MCPD. Hazard Index (HI) values calculated for oral exposure to 3-MCPD for Iranian adults using probabilistic methods, were less than 1.0, reflecting no major risk. In the Margin of Exposure scenario, low- and high-fat mayonnaise samples were of de minimis health concern at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles. Nevertheless, in order to safeguard consumer interests, it is imperative to implement online real-time methodologies for monitoring reactions that result in generation of thermal process contaminants such as 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP, and to innovate novel technologies to minimize the occurrence of such chemicals while preserving both safety and sensory attributes.

Methods, principles, challenges, and perspectives of determining chloropropanols and their esters

Chloropropanols and their esters are a group of food contaminants that have various toxicities to the human body. Research and control to chloropropanols and their esters is important to food safety. Therefore, the sensitive, accurate, precise, and effective determination of chloropropanols and their esters is highly essential to study their concentration, formation, and mitigation. The indirect method, commonly applied in the determination of chloropropanols and their esters, is based on the cleavage of ester bond, extraction, and derivatization. The conventional indirect method will still be the mostly used method in the near future due to its good sensitivity and feasibility, although its parameters need to be chosen and optimized according to sample stuffs and chloropropanol concentrations. Meanwhile, direct method and other quantitative methods should also be developed for special applications, such as studying the profile of chloropropanol esters and rapid screening protocol. The challenges and future perspectives of these methods are discussed in this review. This review can provide a reference on the selection, designation, and modification of methods for determining chloropropanols and their esters.

A boronic acid-modified C60 derivatization reagent for the rapid detection of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a well-known contaminant formed in food thermal processing, which could be found in a variety of foodstuffs. Due to its potential carcinogenicity, it was essential to quickly develop a rapid and high-throughput analytical method to monitor 3-MCPD in foodstuffs, which is described in this study.

METHODS

3-MCPD was extracted from foodstuffs and then was derivatized with a boronic acid-modified C₆₀ (B-C₆₀ ) through the boronic acid-diol reaction. Microwave heating was used to accelerate the derivatization reaction. Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis was conducted using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-MS (MALDI-MS). The application of the method was validated using various smoked food samples.

RESULTS

The chemical derivatization of 3-MCPD with B-C₆₀ enabled the addition of a C₆₀ -tag to 3-MCPD. High-throughput analysis of the sample within 0.5 h was realized. A good linear range from 0.02 to 1.5 μg mL^-1 for 3-MCPD was obtained, with a detection limit of 0.005 μg mL^-1 . The recoveries in spiked foodstuffs ranged from 85.4% to 115.1% with relative standard deviations of 2.0%-14.2%. This method was successfully applied to detect 3-MCPD in smoked foodstuffs.

CONCLUSIONS

A quantitative method was developed for the detection of 3-MCPD in foodstuffs using B-C₆₀ derivatization combined with MALDI-MS strategy. This proposed method may serve as a potential platform for the rapid and high-throughput analysis of 3-MCPD in foodstuffs for the purpose of food safety control.

Chloropropanols (3-MCPD, 1,3-DCP) from food contact materials: GC-MS method improvement, market survey and investigations on the effect of hot water extraction

The chloropropanols, monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) are potential contaminants that may be found in food contact materials (FCM) from paper and paperboard that have been treated with certain wet-strength resins. They can migrate from the paper matrix to aqueous food and beverages and, due to their potentially carcinogenic properties, are of increasing interest in quality assurance or official controls of paper-based FCM. We hereby describe an improved method for the analysis of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in water extracts of FCM making use of 1-chloro-3-methoxy-2-propanol (CMP) as a novel internal standard. The LOD and LOQ were determined to be 0.4 µg/L and 1.2 µg/L for both analytes, making the method appropriate for the quantification of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP below the current legal limits. The method was applied to an extensive market survey of food contact articles made from paper and paperboard including 674 samples. The survey revealed that a high percentage of the products available on the market (e.g., up to 55% of the analysed drinking straws) exceed the BfR limits with values of up to 327 µg/L 3-MCPD and 20 µg/L 1,3-DCP detected in the cold water extract. Remarkable differences were observed concerning the release of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP from different kinds of paper-based FCM products, with drinking straws, cupcake cases, bagasse bowls and kitchen rolls showing particularly high rates (>10%) of non-conformity with the legal limits. A number of samples with especially high concentrations were additionally analysed by hot water extraction, which surprisingly yielded considerably lower results for the release of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP than cold water extraction. The results indicate that cold water extraction is the most sensitive method to detect the migration and control the risk of exposure to 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.

Differential-based biosensor array for fluorescence-chemometric discrimination and the quantification of subtle chloropropanols by cross-reactive serum albumin scaffolding

Food contamination is a serious concern because of a high level of chemicals in food causes severe health issues. Safeguarding the public from the risk of adulterated foods has become a challenging mission. Chloropropanols are of importance to food safety and food security because they are common chemical food contaminants and believed to be carcinogenic to humans. In chemical sensing, chloropropanols are challenging analytes owing to the lacking diversity of functional groups and difficulty in targeting the hydroxyl group in aqueous environments. Moreover, because of their small molecular size, the compositions of chloropropanols remain challenging for achieving chromatographic determination. Herein, to simulate human smell and taste sensations, serum albumins, which are protein-based receptors, were introduced as low-selective receptors for differential sensing. Utilizing serum albumins, a fluorophore (PRODAN), and an additive (ascorbic acid), a differential-based optical biosensor array was developed to detect and differentiate chloropropanols. By integrating the sensor array with linear discriminant analysis (LDA), four chloropropanols were effectively differentiated based on their isomerism properties and the number of the hydroxyl groups, even at ultra-low concentration (5 nM). This concentration is far below the maximum tolerable level of 0.18 μM for chloropropanols. The sensing array was then employed for chloropropanols differentiation and quantification in the complex mixtures (e.g., synthetic soy and dark soy sauces). Leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) analysis demonstrated 100% accurate classification for all tests. These results signify our differential sensing array as a practical and powerful tool to speedily identify, differentiate, and even quantify chloropropanols in food matrices.

Simultaneous Analysis of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in Asian Style Sauces Using QuEChERS Extraction and Gas Chromatography-Triple Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry

Acid hydrolyzed vegetable protein (aHVP) is used for flavoring a wide variety of foods and also in the production of nonfermented soy sauce. During the production of aHVP, chloropropanols including 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3 dichloropropane-2-ol (1,3-DCP) can be formed through the reaction of the hydrochloric acid catalyst and residual fat and the reaction of 3-MCPD with acetic acid, respectively. 3-MCPD is a carcinogen, and 1,3-DCP has been classified as a genotoxic carcinogen. The European Union (EU) has set a maximum concentration of 0.02 mg/kg of 3-MCPD in aHVP, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set a guidance limit of 1 mg/kg of 3-MCPD in aHVP. 1,3-DCP is not an approved food additive, and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA) has set a limit at 0.005 mg/kg, which is close to the estimated method detection limit. Currently there are few analytical methods for the simultaneous determination of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP without derivatization due to differences in their physical chemical properties and reactivity. A new method was developed using QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) with direct analysis of the extract without derivatization using gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-QQQ). Additionally, a market sampling of 60 soy sauce samples was performed in 2015 to determine if concentrations have changed since the FDA limit was set in 2008. The sampling results were compared between the new QuEChERS method and a method using phenylboronic acid (PBA) as a derivatizing agent for 3-MCPD analysis. The concentrations of 3-MCPD detected in soy sauce samples collected in 2015 ( Collapse

Key Words

• 1,3-DCP
• 3-MCPD
• soy sauce

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MESH Headings

• Carcinogens/analysis
• Carcinogens/isolation & purification
• Chemical Fractionation/methods
• Flavoring Agents/analysis
• Food Contamination/analysis
• Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry/methods
• Limit of Detection
• Propane/analogs & derivatives
• Propane/analysis
• Propane/isolation & purification
• alpha-Chlorohydrin/analysis
• alpha-Chlorohydrin/isolation & purification

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Grants

• FD999999 Intramural FDA HHS

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Affiliation(s)

Susan Genualdi U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
Patricia Nyman U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
Lowri DeJager U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States

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