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Sahragard A, Dvořák M, Pagan-Galbarro C, Carrasco-Correa EJ, Kubáň P, Miró M. 3D-printed stereolithographic fluidic devices for automatic nonsupported microelectromembrane extraction and clean-up of wastewater samples. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1297:342362. [PMID: 38438239 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a quest of novel functional and reliable platforms for enhancing the efficiency of microextraction approaches in troublesome matrices, such as industrial wastewaters. 3D printing has been proven superb in the analytical field to act as the springboard of microscale extraction approaches. RESULTS In this work, low-force stereolithography (SL) was exploited for 3D printing and prototyping bespoke fluidic devices for accommodating nonsupported microelectromembrane extraction (μEME). The analytical performance of 3D-printed μEME devices with distinct cross-sections, including square, circle, and obround, and various channel dimensions was explored against that of commonly used circular polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing in flow injection systems. A computer-controlled millifluidic system was harnessed for the (i) automatic liquid-handling of minute volumes of donor, acceptor, and organic phases at the low μL level that spanned from 3 to 44 μL in this work, (ii) formation of three-phase μEME, (iii) in-line extraction, (iv) flow-through optical detection of the acceptor phase, and (v) solvent removal and regeneration of the μEME device and fluidic lines. Using methylene blue (MB) as a model analyte, experimental results evinced that the 3D-printed channels with an obround cross-section (2.5 mm × 2.5 mm) were the most efficient in terms of absolute extraction recovery (59%), as compared to PTFE tubing of 2.5 mm inner diameter (27%). This is attributed to the distinctive convex interface of the organic phase (1-octanol), with a more pronounced laminar pattern, in 3D-printed SL methacrylate-based fluidic channels against that of PTFE tubing on account of the enhanced 1-octanol wettability and lower contact angles for the 3D-printed devices. The devices with obround channels were leveraged for the automatic μEME and in-line clean-up of MB in high matrix textile dyeing wastewater samples with relative recoveries ≥81%, RSD% ≤ 17.1% and LOD of 1.3 mg L-1. The 3D-printed nonsupported μEME device was proven superb for the analysis of wastewater samples with an elevated ionic strength (0.7 mol L-1 NaCl, 5000 mg L-1 Na2CO3, and 0.013 mol L-1 NaOH) with recorded electric currents below 12 μA. NOVELTY The coupling of 3D printing with nonsupported μEME in automatic flow-based systems is herein proposed for the first time and demonstrated for the clean-up of troublesome samples, such as wastewaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Sahragard
- FI-TRACE Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of the Balearic Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa km 7.5, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Miloš Dvořák
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Veveří 97, CZ-60200, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Carlos Pagan-Galbarro
- FI-TRACE Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of the Balearic Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa km 7.5, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Enrique Javier Carrasco-Correa
- CLECEM Group, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, C/ Doctor Moliner, 50, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Pavel Kubáň
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Veveří 97, CZ-60200, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Manuel Miró
- FI-TRACE Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of the Balearic Islands, Carretera de Valldemossa km 7.5, E-07122, Palma de Mallorca, Illes Balears, Spain.
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Ahangar P, Li J, Nkindi LS, Mohammadrezaee Z, Cooke ME, Martineau PA, Weber MH, Saade E, Nateghi N, Rosenzweig DH. A Nanoporous 3D-Printed Scaffold for Local Antibiotic Delivery. MICROMACHINES 2023; 15:83. [PMID: 38258202 PMCID: PMC10819679 DOI: 10.3390/mi15010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Limitations of bone defect reconstruction include poor bone healing and osteointegration with acrylic cements, lack of strength with bone putty/paste, and poor osteointegration. Tissue engineering aims to bridge these gaps through the use of bioactive implants. However, there is often a risk of infection and biofilm formation associated with orthopedic implants, which may develop anti-microbial resistance. To promote bone repair while also locally delivering therapeutics, 3D-printed implants serve as a suitable alternative. Soft, nanoporous 3D-printed filaments made from a thermoplastic polyurethane and polyvinyl alcohol blend, LAY-FOMM and LAY-FELT, have shown promise for drug delivery and orthopedic applications. Here, we compare 3D printability and sustained antibiotic release kinetics from two types of commercial 3D-printed porous filaments suitable for bone tissue engineering applications. We found that both LAY-FOMM and LAY-FELT could be consistently printed into scaffolds for drug delivery. Further, the materials could sustainably release Tetracycline over 3 days, independent of material type and infill geometry. The drug-loaded materials did not show any cytotoxicity when cultured with primary human fibroblasts. We conclude that both LAY-FOMM and LAY-FELT 3D-printed scaffolds are suitable devices for local antibiotic delivery applications, and they may have potential applications to prophylactically reduce infections in orthopedic reconstruction surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pouyan Ahangar
- Department of Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada; (P.A.); (M.E.C.); (P.A.M.); (M.H.W.)
| | - Jialiang Li
- Department of Science, TAV College, Montreal, QC H3W 3E1, Canada; (J.L.); (L.S.N.); (Z.M.); (E.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Leslie S. Nkindi
- Department of Science, TAV College, Montreal, QC H3W 3E1, Canada; (J.L.); (L.S.N.); (Z.M.); (E.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Zohreh Mohammadrezaee
- Department of Science, TAV College, Montreal, QC H3W 3E1, Canada; (J.L.); (L.S.N.); (Z.M.); (E.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Megan E. Cooke
- Department of Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada; (P.A.); (M.E.C.); (P.A.M.); (M.H.W.)
| | - Paul A. Martineau
- Department of Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada; (P.A.); (M.E.C.); (P.A.M.); (M.H.W.)
| | - Michael H. Weber
- Department of Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada; (P.A.); (M.E.C.); (P.A.M.); (M.H.W.)
| | - Elie Saade
- Department of Science, TAV College, Montreal, QC H3W 3E1, Canada; (J.L.); (L.S.N.); (Z.M.); (E.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Nima Nateghi
- Department of Science, TAV College, Montreal, QC H3W 3E1, Canada; (J.L.); (L.S.N.); (Z.M.); (E.S.); (N.N.)
| | - Derek H. Rosenzweig
- Department of Surgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada; (P.A.); (M.E.C.); (P.A.M.); (M.H.W.)
- Injury, Repair and Recovery Program, Research Institute of McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC H3G 1A4, Canada
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Zhang J, Wang D, Li Y, Liu L, Liang Y, He B, Hu L, Jiang G. Application of three-dimensional printing technology in environmental analysis: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1281:341742. [PMID: 38783729 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
The development of environmental analysis devices with high performance is essential to assess the potential risks of environmental pollutants. However, it is still challenging to develop environmental analysis equipment with miniaturization, portability, and high sensitivity based on traditional processing techniques. In recent years, the popularity of 3D printing technology (3DP) with high precision, low cost, and unlimited design freedom has provided opportunities to solve the existing challenges of environmental analysis. 3D printing has brought solutions to promote the high performance and versatility of environmental analysis equipment by optimizing printing materials, enhancing equipment structure, and integrating multidisciplinary technology. In this paper, we comprehensively review the latest progress in 3D printing in various aspects of environmental analysis procedures, including but not limited to sample collection, pretreatment, separation, and detection. We highlight their advantages and challenges in determining various environmental contaminants through passive sampling, solid-phase extraction, chromatographic separation, and mass spectrometry detection. The manufacturing of 3D-printed environmental analysis devices is also discussed. Finally, we look forward to their development prospects and challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Dingyi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yingying Li
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Lihong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yong Liang
- Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, China
| | - Bin He
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China
| | - Ligang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China; Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, China.
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310000, China
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Esene JE, Nasman PR, Miner DS, Nordin GP, Woolley AT. High-performance microchip electrophoresis separations of preterm birth biomarkers using 3D printed microfluidic devices. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1706:464242. [PMID: 37595419 PMCID: PMC10473225 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
We employed digital light processing-stereolithography 3D printing to create microfluidic devices with different designs for microchip electrophoresis (µCE). Short or long straight channel, and two- or four-turn serpentine channel microfluidic devices with separation channel lengths of 1.3, 3.1, 3.0, and 4.7 cm, respectively, all with a cross injector design, were fabricated. We measured current as a function of time and voltage to determine a separation time window and conditions for the onset of Joule heating in these designs. Separations in these devices were evaluated by performing µCE and measuring theoretical plate counts for electric field strengths near and above the onset of Joule heating, with fluorescently labeled glycine and phenylalanine as model analytes. We further demonstrated µCE of peptides and proteins related to preterm birth risk, showing increased peak capacity and resolution compared to previous results with 3D printed microdevices. These results mark an important step forward in the use of 3D printed microfluidic devices for rapid bioanalysis by µCE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joule E Esene
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Parker R Nasman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Dallin S Miner
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Gregory P Nordin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Adam T Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
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Boaks M, Roper C, Viglione M, Hooper K, Woolley AT, Christensen KA, Nordin GP. Biocompatible High-Resolution 3D-Printed Microfluidic Devices: Integrated Cell Chemotaxis Demonstration. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1589. [PMID: 37630125 PMCID: PMC10456398 DOI: 10.3390/mi14081589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a method to effectively 3D print microfluidic devices with high-resolution features using a biocompatible resin based on avobenzone as the UV absorber. Our method relies on spectrally shaping the 3D printer source spectrum so that it is fully overlapped by avobenzone's absorption spectrum. Complete overlap is essential to effectively limit the optical penetration depth, which is required to achieve high out-of-plane resolution. We demonstrate the high resolution in practice by 3D printing 15 μm square pillars in a microfluidic chamber, where the pillars are separated by 7.7 μm and are printed with 5 μm layers. Furthermore, we show reliable membrane valves and pumps using the biocompatible resin. Valves are tested to 1,000,000 actuations with no observable degradation in performance. Finally, we create a concentration gradient generation (CG) component and utilize it in two device designs for cell chemotaxis studies. The first design relies on an external dual syringe pump to generate source and sink flows to supply the CG channel, while the second is a complete integrated device incorporating on-chip pumps, valves, and reservoirs. Both device types are seeded with adherent cells that are subjected to a chemoattractant CG, and both show clear evidence of chemotactic cellular migration. Moreover, the integrated device demonstrates cellular migration comparable to the external syringe pump device. This demonstration illustrates the effectiveness of our integrated chemotactic assay approach and high-resolution biocompatible resin 3D printing fabrication process. In addition, our 3D printing process has been tuned for rapid fabrication, as printing times for the two device designs are, respectively, 8 and 15 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mawla Boaks
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Connor Roper
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Matthew Viglione
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Kent Hooper
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Adam T. Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Kenneth A. Christensen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Gregory P. Nordin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
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Shi L, Chen M, Zhao G, Wang X, Fan M, Liu R, Xie F. Environmental Applications of Electromembrane Extraction: A Review. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:705. [PMID: 37623766 PMCID: PMC10456692 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13080705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Electromembrane extraction (EME) is a miniaturized extraction technique that has been widely used in recent years for the analysis and removal of pollutants in the environment. It is based on electrokinetic migration across a supported liquid membrane (SLM) under the influence of an external electrical field between two aqueous compartments. Based on the features of the SLM and the electrical field, EME offers quick extraction, effective sample clean-up, and good selectivity, and limits the amount of organic solvent used per sample to a few microliters. In this paper, the basic devices (membrane materials and types of organic solvents) and influencing factors of EME are first introduced, and the applications of EME in the analysis and removal of environmental inorganic ions and organic pollutants are systematically reviewed. An outlook on the future development of EME for environmental applications is also given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linping Shi
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Science Avenue #100, Zhengzhou 450001, China;
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Mantang Chen
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Ge Zhao
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Meijuan Fan
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Ruihong Liu
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
| | - Fuwei Xie
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Fengyang Street #2, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (G.Z.); (X.W.); (M.F.); (R.L.)
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Zaroudi F, Nasihatkon B, Hosseinzadeh R, Fakhari AR, Seidi S. Miniaturized on-chip electromembrane extraction with QR code-based red-green-blue analysis using a customized Android application for copper determination in environmental and food samples. Food Chem 2023; 414:135667. [PMID: 36808032 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
A miniaturized on-chip electromembrane extraction device with QR code-based red-green-blue analysis was designed to determine copper in water, food, and soil. The acceptor droplet consisted of ascorbic acid as the reducing agent and bathocuproine as the chromogenic reagent. The formation of a yellowish-orange complex was a sign of copper in the sample. Then, the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the dried acceptor droplet was done by the customized Android app that was developed based on image analysis concepts. In this application, principal component analysis was performed on the data for the first time to reduce the three dimensions, red, green, and blue, to one dimension. The effective extraction parameters were optimized. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were 0.1 µg mL-1. Intra- and inter-assay relative standard deviations ranged between 2.0 and 2.3 % and 3.1-3.7 %, respectively. The calibration range was studied between 0.1 and 25 µg mL-1 (R2 = 0.9814).
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Affiliation(s)
- Farnaz Zaroudi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, P.O. Box 16315-1618, Postal Code 15418-49611, Tehran, Iran; Nanomaterial, Separation and Trace Analysis Research Lab, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, P.O. Box 16315-1618, Postal Code 15418-49611, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behrooz Nasihatkon
- Faculty of Computer Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Ali Reza Fakhari
- Department of Chemistry, Shahid Beheshti University, G. V., P.O. Box 1983963113 Evin, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahram Seidi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, P.O. Box 16315-1618, Postal Code 15418-49611, Tehran, Iran; Nanomaterial, Separation and Trace Analysis Research Lab, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, P.O. Box 16315-1618, Postal Code 15418-49611, Tehran, Iran.
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8
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Esene JE, Nasman PR, Akuoko Y, Tahir A, Woolley AT. Past, current, and future roles of 3D printing in the development of capillary electrophoresis systems. Trends Analyt Chem 2023; 162:117032. [PMID: 37008739 PMCID: PMC10062378 DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2023.117032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
3D printing, an additive manufacturing technology, has made significant inroads into improving systems for bioanalysis in recent years. This approach is particularly powerful due to the ease and flexibility in rapidly creating novel and complex designs for analytical applications. As such, 3D printing offers an emerging technology for creating systems for electrophoretic analysis. Here, we review 3D printing work on improving and miniaturizing capillary electrophoresis (CE), emphasizing publications from 2019‒2022. We describe enabling uses of 3D printing in interfacing upstream sample preparation or downstream detection with CE. Recent developments in miniaturized CE enabled by 3D printing are also elaborated, including key areas where 3D printing could further improve over the current state-of-the-art. Lastly, we highlight promising future trends for using 3D printing in miniaturizing CE and the significant potential for innovative advancements. 3D printing is poised to play a key role in moving forward miniaturized CE in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joule E. Esene
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Parker R. Nasman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Yesman Akuoko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Anum Tahir
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Adam T. Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
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Dispersive solid-phase extraction facilitated by newly developed, fully 3D-printed device. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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10
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Dolatabadi R, Mohammadi A, Walker RB. A novel 3D printed device with conductive elements for electromembrane extraction combined with HPLC and UV detector. J Sep Sci 2022; 45:3187-3196. [PMID: 35762108 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202200028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This paper is focused on proposing for a new design and setup for electromembrane extraction. A new cap was designed and conductive vials of different shape were fabricated using three-dimensional printing. The new cap holds three fibers to enhance electromembrane extraction recovery. Conductive vials can simultaneously perform as electrodes therefore, there is no need to include an electrode in sample solutions. Phenobarbital and phenytoin were used as model compounds to assess the setup performance. Under optimal conditions, these analytes were extracted from the sample solution at pH = 9 to the acceptor solution at pH = 13 with a voltage of 40 V for 20 min, while 1-octanol was employed as the supported-liquid-membrane. The influence of conductive vials geometry on the recovery was examined and effects of different shapes were studied by performing numerical simulation to establish electric potential distribution. Of the vials tested with circular, triangular and floral-like cross-sections the latter exhibited the best voltage distribution. The circular vial had the highest recovery attributed to its better hydrodynamic shape, which allows rapid fluid sample transport and therefore enhanced system recovery. The extraction recovery and RSD of circular vial with three fibers was 33.0 and 7.6 for phenobarbital and 42.2 and 10.4 for phenytoin. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshanak Dolatabadi
- Department of Drug and Food Control, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mohammadi
- Department of Drug and Food Control, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Roderick B Walker
- Division of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, Eastern Cape, South Africa
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Santigosa E, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Giménez-Gómez P, Muñoz M, Ramos-Payán M. A rapid and versatile microfluidic method for the simultaneous extraction of polar and non-polar basic pharmaceuticals from human urine. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1208:339829. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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13
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Fikarova K, Moore E, Nicolau A, Horstkotte B, Maya F. Recent trends on the implementation of reticular materials in column‐centered separations. J Sep Sci 2022; 45:1411-1424. [PMID: 35080129 PMCID: PMC9305254 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202100849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the development of column‐based analytical separations are strongly linked to the development of novel materials. Stationary phases for chromatographic separation are usually based on silica and polymer materials. Nevertheless, recent advances have been made using porous crystalline reticular materials, such as metal‐organic frameworks and covalent organic frameworks. However, the direct packing of these materials is often limited due to their small crystal size and nonspherical shape. In this review, recent strategies to incorporate porous crystalline materials as stationary phases for liquid‐phase separations are covered. Moreover, we discuss the potential future directions in their development and integration into suitable supports for analytical applications. Finally, we discuss the main challenges to be solved to take full advantage of these materials as stationary phases for analytical separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Fikarova
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) School of Natural Sciences (Chemistry) University of Tasmania Tasmania Australia
- Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Analytical Chemistry Charles University Hradec Králové Czech Republic
| | - Edward Moore
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) School of Natural Sciences (Chemistry) University of Tasmania Tasmania Australia
| | - Alma Nicolau
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) School of Natural Sciences (Chemistry) University of Tasmania Tasmania Australia
| | - Burkhard Horstkotte
- Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Analytical Chemistry Charles University Hradec Králové Czech Republic
| | - Fernando Maya
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) School of Natural Sciences (Chemistry) University of Tasmania Tasmania Australia
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14
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Gao Z, Zhong W. Recent (2018-2020) development in capillary electrophoresis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:115-130. [PMID: 33754195 PMCID: PMC7984737 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03290-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Development of new capillary electrophoresis (CE) methodology and instrumentation, as well as application of CE to solve new problems, remains an active research area because of the attractive features of CE compared to other separation techniques. In this review, we focus on the representative works about sample preconcentration, separation media or capillary coating development, detector construction, and multidimensional separation in CE, which are judiciously selected from the papers published in 2018-2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziting Gao
- Department of Chemistry, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Wenwan Zhong
- Department of Chemistry, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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15
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Alidoust M, Baharfar M, Manouchehri M, Yamini Y, Tajik M, Seidi S. Emergence of microfluidic devices in sample extraction; an overview of diverse methodologies, principals, and recent advancements. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Belka M, Bączek T. Additive manufacturing and related technologies – The source of chemically active materials in separation science. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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17
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An Electrodiffusion Model Coupled with Fluid-Flow Effects for an On-Chip Electromembrane Extraction System. Transp Porous Media 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11242-021-01643-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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18
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Tobolkina E, Rudaz S. Capillary Electrophoresis Instruments for Medical Applications and Falsified Drug Analysis/Quality Control in Developing Countries. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8107-8115. [PMID: 34061489 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The implementation of integrated analytical techniques to meet stringent requirements in the life sciences requires a well-developed analytical capacity. New technology in analytical equipment for the analysis of large and small molecules is continuously being developed. However, developing countries frequently struggle to keep pace with technological advancements. Hence, it is of utmost importance to better invest in optimizing existing and proven methodologies to tackle life-saving challenges in developing countries. In this regard, capillary electrophoresis is a promising candidate for solving multiple analytical problems compared to its chromatographic and spectroscopic counterparts due to its fast analytical response time and notable cost efficiency. In the following, we summarize various issues and opportunities for capillary electrophoresis to be the technique of choice for the unresolved bottlenecks in analytical equipment in developing countries for drug quality control. This perspective demonstrates that the ongoing quest for the design of new, impactful analytical techniques is a dynamic and rapidly developing research area and mentions some directions and opportunities that have arisen during the recent pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tobolkina
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Serge Rudaz
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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19
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An efficient microfluidic device based on electromembrane extraction for the simultaneous extraction of acidic and basic drugs. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1160:338448. [PMID: 33894962 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The simultaneous extraction of acidic and basic compounds is considered a great challenge. In this work, an efficient and fast microfluidic device is described for the simultaneous determination of acidic and basic drugs by two electromembrane extraction, offering extraction efficiencies over 98% for all analytes in human urine samples and solving the difficulties encountered to date. The sample is submitted into the device and the collected acceptor phase is directly analyzed by diode array detector and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The device consisted of three poly(methylmethacrylate) layers and four electrodes to perform EME in two steps in a single device. Two acidic analytes (ketoprofen and naproxen) and two basic analytes (amitriptyline and loperamide) were selected as model analytes. The device proposed works under stable electric field conditions, low current intensities that confers great stability to the supported liquid membrane. After a comprehensive study of the SLM, 1:1 2-nitrophenyl octhyl ether:dodecanol was selected as optimal. This device has also been successfully applied in 1:2 diluted bovine plasma samples with recoveries over 84% and a relative standard deviation below 6%. This microfluidic device needs small sample volumes (lower than 50 μL) and offers short extraction times (10 min) and excellent clean-up. Furthermore, it has proven to be a robust and reproducible device after more than 30 consecutive extractions, and thanks to the low potential required (5 V), it allows its compatibility with a single battery.
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20
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Voráčová I, Přikryl J, Novotný J, Datinská V, Yang J, Astier Y, Foret F. 3D printed device for epitachophoresis. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1154:338246. [PMID: 33736813 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Polyacrylamide or agarose gels are the most frequently used sieving and stabilizing media in slab gel electrophoresis. Recently, we have introduced a new electrophoretic technique for concentration/separation of milliliter sample volumes. In this technique, the gel is used primarily as an anticonvection media eliminating liquid flow during the electromigration. While serving well for the liquid stabilization, the gels can undergo deformation when exposed to a discontinuous electrolyte buffer system used in epitachophoresis. In this work, we have explored 3D printing to form rigid stabilizing manifolds to minimize liquid flow during the epitachophoresis run. The whole device was printed using the stereolithography technique from a low water-absorbing resin. The stabilizing manifold, serving as the gel substitute, was printed as a replaceable composite structure preventing electrolyte mixing during the separation. Different geometries of the 3D printed stabilizing manifolds were tested for use in concentrating ionic sample components without spatial separation. The presented device can focus analytes from 3 or 4 mL of the sample to 150 μL or less, depending on the collection cup size. With the 150 μL collection cup, this represents the enrichment factor from 20 to 27. The time of concentration was from 15 to 25 min, depending on stabilization media and power used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivona Voráčová
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic.
| | - Jan Přikryl
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Novotný
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimíra Datinská
- Roche Sequencing Solution, Incorporated Pleasanton, California, 94588, United States
| | - Jaeyoung Yang
- Roche Sequencing Solution, Incorporated Pleasanton, California, 94588, United States
| | - Yann Astier
- Roche Sequencing Solution, Incorporated Pleasanton, California, 94588, United States
| | - František Foret
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic; CEITEC, Masaryk University, Brno 601 77, Czech Republic
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21
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Daryanavard SM, Zolfaghari H, Abdel-Rehim A, Abdel-Rehim M. Recent applications of microextraction sample preparation techniques in biological samples analysis. Biomed Chromatogr 2021; 35:e5105. [PMID: 33660303 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of biological samples is affected by interfering substances with chemical properties similar to those of the target analytes, such as drugs. Biological samples such as whole blood, plasma, serum, urine and saliva must be properly processed for separation, purification, enrichment and chemical modification to meet the requirements of the analytical instruments. This causes the sample preparation stage to be of undeniable importance in the analysis of such samples through methods such as microextraction techniques. The scope of this review will cover a comprehensive summary of available literature data on microextraction techniques playing a key role for analytical purposes, methods of their implementation in common biological samples, and finally, the most recent examples of application of microextraction techniques in preconcentration of analytes from urine, blood and saliva samples. The objectives and merits of each microextration technique are carefully described in detail with respect to the nature of the biological samples. This review presents the most recent and innovative work published on microextraction application in common biological samples, mostly focused on original studies reported from 2017 to date. The main sections of this review comprise an introduction to the microextraction techniques supported by recent application studies involving quantitative and qualitative results and summaries of the most significant, recently published applications of microextracion methods in biological samples. This article considers recent applications of several microextraction techniques in the field of sample preparation for biological samples including urine, blood and saliva, with consideration for extraction techniques, sample preparation and instrumental detection systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hesane Zolfaghari
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hormozgan, Bandar-Abbas, Iran
| | - Abbi Abdel-Rehim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mohamed Abdel-Rehim
- Functional Materials Division, Department of Applied Physics, School of Engineering Sciences, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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22
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Davis JJ, Foster SW, Grinias JP. Low-cost and open-source strategies for chemical separations. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1638:461820. [PMID: 33453654 PMCID: PMC7870555 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, a trend toward utilizing open access resources for laboratory research has begun. Open-source design strategies for scientific hardware rely upon the use of widely available parts, especially those that can be directly printed using additive manufacturing techniques and electronic components that can be connected to low-cost microcontrollers. Open-source software eliminates the need for expensive commercial licenses and provides the opportunity to design programs for specific needs. In this review, the impact of the "open-source movement" within the field of chemical separations is described, primarily through a comprehensive look at research in this area over the past five years. Topics that are covered include general laboratory equipment, sample preparation techniques, separations-based analysis, detection strategies, electronic system control, and software for data processing. Remaining hurdles and possible opportunities for further adoption of open-source approaches in the context of these separations-related topics are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Davis
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ 08028, United States
| | - Samuel W Foster
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ 08028, United States
| | - James P Grinias
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ 08028, United States.
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23
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Abstract
Abstract
The rapid development of additive technologies in recent years is accompanied by their intensive introduction into various fields of science and related technologies, including analytical chemistry. The use of 3D printing in analytical instrumentation, in particular, for making prototypes of new equipment and manufacturing parts having complex internal spatial configuration, has been proved as exceptionally effective. Additional opportunities for the widespread introduction of 3D printing technologies are associated with the development of new optically transparent, current- and thermo-conductive materials, various composite materials with desired properties, as well as possibilities for printing with the simultaneous combination of several materials in one product. This review will focus on the application of 3D printing for production of new advanced analytical devices, such as compact chromatographic columns for high performance liquid chromatography, flow reactors and flow cells for detectors, devices for passive concentration of toxic compounds and various integrated devices that allow significant improvements in chemical analysis. A special attention is paid to the complexity and functionality of 3D-printed devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel N. Nesterenko
- Department of Chemistry , Lomonosov Moscow State University , 1–3 Leninskie Gory , GSP-3 , Moscow , Russian Federation
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24
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Impact of ion balance in electromembrane extraction. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1124:129-136. [PMID: 32534665 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Electromembrane extraction (EME) involves transfer of analyte ions from aqueous sample, through a supported liquid membrane (SLM), and into an aqueous acceptor solution under the influence of an external electrical field. In addition to target analyte ions, the sample also contains matrix ions, and both the sample and acceptor contains background buffer ions to control pH. The ratio between the total amount of ions in sample and acceptor defines the ion balance (χ). Previous publications have discussed the impact of ion balance, but conclusions are contradictory. Therefore, the current paper investigated the ion balance in more detail. From a theoretical point of view, low χ-values favor EME; buffer anions at high concentration in the acceptor migrate into the SLM, while target cations enters the SLM from the sample to maintain electroneutrality. A large number of experiments was performed in this paper to investigate the practical impact of ion balance. Twelve basic drugs were used as model analytes (0.0 < log P < 5.0), and 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE) and NPOE + 5% di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (DEHP) were used as SLM. With formate buffer pH 3.75 as sample and acceptor, the impact of χ in the range 0.01-10 was studied without bias from differences in pH. Here model analytes were unaffected by ion balance. Buffers containing propionic, butyric, and valeric acid were also tested. These buffer ions migrated more into the SLM, and affected recoveries in several cases. However, this was due to ion pairing rather than effects of ion balance. Similar behaviors from sodium chloride and urine samples were observed with different χ-values. Thus, in the systems tested, almost no impact of ion balance was found, and this was attributed to very low partition of background buffer and matrix ions into the SLM. On the other hand, extractions were in several cases influenced by ion pairing phenomena.
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25
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Li F, Ceballos MR, Balavandy SK, Fan J, Khataei MM, Yamini Y, Maya F. 3D Printing in analytical sample preparation. J Sep Sci 2020; 43:1854-1866. [PMID: 32056373 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202000035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the last 5 years, additive manufacturing (three-dimensional printing) has emerged as a highly valuable technology to advance the field of analytical sample preparation. Three-dimensional printing enabled the cost-effective and rapid fabrication of devices for sample preparation, especially in flow-based mode, opening new possibilities for the development of automated analytical methods. Recent advances involve membrane-based three-dimensional printed separation devices fabricated by print-pause-print and multi-material three-dimensional printing, or improved three-dimensional printed holders for solid-phase extraction containing sorbent bead packings, extraction disks, fibers, and magnetic particles. Other recent developments rely on the direct three-dimensional printing of extraction sorbents, the functionalization of commercial three-dimensional printable resins, or the coating of three-dimensional printed devices with functional micro/nanomaterials. In addition, improved devices for liquid-liquid extraction such as extraction chambers, or phase separators are opening new possibilities for analytical method development combined with high-performance liquid chromatography. The present review outlines the current state-of-the-art of three-dimensional printing in analytical sample preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Natural Sciences. Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Melisa Rodas Ceballos
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Natural Sciences. Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Sepideh Keshan Balavandy
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Natural Sciences. Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Jingxi Fan
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Natural Sciences. Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | | | - Yadollah Yamini
- Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fernando Maya
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Natural Sciences. Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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26
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Microextraction approaches for bioanalytical applications: An overview. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1616:460790. [PMID: 31892411 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Biological samples are usually complex matrices due to the presence of proteins, salts and a variety of organic compounds with chemical properties similar to those of the target analytes. Therefore, sample preparation is often mandatory in order to isolate the analytes from troublesome matrices before instrumental analysis. Because the number of samples in drug development, doping analysis, forensic science, toxicological analysis, and preclinical and clinical assays is steadily increasing, novel high throughput sample preparation approaches are calling for. The key factors in this development are the miniaturization and the automation of the sample preparation approaches so as to cope with most of the twelve principles of green chemistry. In this review, recent trends in sample preparation and novel strategies will be discussed in detail with particular focus on sorptive and liquid-phase microextraction in bioanalysis. The actual applicability of selective sorbents is also considered. Additionally, the role of 3D printing in microextraction for bioanalytical methods will be pinpointed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik A. Hansen
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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