1
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Kogler A, Sharma N, Tiburcio D, Gong M, Miller DM, Williams KS, Chen X, Tarpeh WA. Long-Term Robustness and Failure Mechanisms of Electrochemical Stripping for Wastewater Ammonia Recovery. ACS ENVIRONMENTAL AU 2024; 4:89-105. [PMID: 38525023 PMCID: PMC10958661 DOI: 10.1021/acsenvironau.3c00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Nitrogen in wastewater has negative environmental, human health, and economic impacts but can be recovered to reduce the costs and environmental impacts of wastewater treatment and chemical production. To recover ammonia/ammonium (total ammonia nitrogen, TAN) from urine, we operated electrochemical stripping (ECS) for over a month, achieving 83.4 ± 1.5% TAN removal and 73.0 ± 2.9% TAN recovery. With two reactors, we recovered sixteen 500-mL batches (8 L total) of ammonium sulfate (20.9 g/L TAN) approaching commercial fertilizer concentrations (28.4 g/L TAN) and often having >95% purity. While evaluating the operation and maintenance needs, we identified pH, full-cell voltage, product volume, and water flux into the product as informative process monitoring parameters that can be inexpensively and rapidly measured. Characterization of fouled cation exchange and omniphobic membranes informs cleaning and reactor modifications to reduce fouling with organics and calcium/magnesium salts. To evaluate the impact of urine collection and storage on ECS, we conducted experiments with urine at different levels of dilution with flush water, extents of divalent cation precipitation, and degrees of hydrolysis. ECS effectively treated urine under all conditions, but minimizing flush water and ensuring storage until complete hydrolysis would enable energy-efficient TAN recovery. Our experimental results and cost analysis motivate a multifaceted approach to improving ECS's technical and economic viability by extending component lifetimes, decreasing component costs, and reducing energy consumption through material, reactor, and process engineering. In summary, we demonstrated urine treatment as a foothold for electrochemical nutrient recovery from wastewater while supporting the applicability of ECS to seven other wastewaters with widely varying characteristics. Our findings will facilitate the scale-up and deployment of electrochemical nutrient recovery technologies, enabling a circular nitrogen economy that fosters sanitation provision, efficient chemical production, and water resource protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kogler
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Neha Sharma
- Stanford
Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC
National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94205, United States
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Diana Tiburcio
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Meili Gong
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Dean M. Miller
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Kindle S. Williams
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Xi Chen
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - William A. Tarpeh
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Room 387, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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2
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Chikkatti BS, Sajjan AM, Banapurmath NR, Bhutto JK, Verma R, Yunus Khan TM. Fabrication of Flexible Films for Supercapacitors Using Halloysite Nano-Clay Incorporated Poly(lactic acid). Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4587. [PMID: 38231974 PMCID: PMC10708593 DOI: 10.3390/polym15234587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In the past few years, significant research efforts have been directed toward improving the electrochemical capabilities of supercapacitors by advancing electrode materials. The present work signifies the development of poly(lactic acid)/alloysite nano-clay as an electrode material for supercapacitors. Physico-chemical characterizations were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, wide-angle X-ray diffraction, and a universal testing machine. Cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and galvanostatic charge-discharge techniques were employed to evaluate electrochemical characteristics. The optimized poly(lactic acid)/halloysite nano-clay film revealed the highest specific capacitance of 205.5 F g-1 at 0.05 A g-1 current density and showed 14.6 Wh kg-1 energy density at 72 W kg-1 power density. Capacitance retention of 98.48% was achieved after 1000 cycles. The microsupercapacitor device presented a specific capacitance of 197.7 mF g-1 at a current density of 0.45 mA g-1 with 10.8 mWh kg-1 energy density at 549 mW kg-1 power density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bipin S. Chikkatti
- Department of Chemistry, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India;
| | - Ashok M. Sajjan
- Department of Chemistry, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India;
- Centre of Excellence in Material Science, School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India;
| | - Nagaraj R. Banapurmath
- Centre of Excellence in Material Science, School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India;
| | - Javed Khan Bhutto
- Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia; (J.K.B.); (R.V.)
| | - Rajesh Verma
- Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia; (J.K.B.); (R.V.)
| | - T. M. Yunus Khan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia
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3
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Falina I, Loza N, Brovkina M, Titskaya E, Timofeev S, Kononenko N. Electrotransport Properties of Perfluorinated Cation-Exchange Membranes of Various Thickness. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:873. [PMID: 37999359 PMCID: PMC10673526 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13110873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
The present work discusses the influence of the thickness of MF-4SK perfluorinated sulfonic cation-exchange membranes on their electrotransport properties in hydrochloric acid solutions. It is found that diffusion permeability and conductivity are primarily determined with the specific water content of the membranes and increase with their increase. Analysis of the contribution of reverse diffusion through the membrane to the value of the limiting current shows that it can reach 20% for membranes with a thickness of 60 μm. A study of the characteristics of the fuel cell with perfluorinated membranes of different thicknesses shows that the membrane thickness affects both the ohmic resistance of the membrane-electrode assembly and the diffusion limitations of proton transport in polymer electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Falina
- Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry and High Technologies, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.L.); (M.B.); (E.T.); (N.K.)
| | - Natalia Loza
- Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry and High Technologies, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.L.); (M.B.); (E.T.); (N.K.)
| | - Marina Brovkina
- Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry and High Technologies, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.L.); (M.B.); (E.T.); (N.K.)
| | - Ekaterina Titskaya
- Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry and High Technologies, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.L.); (M.B.); (E.T.); (N.K.)
| | | | - Natalia Kononenko
- Physical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry and High Technologies, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.L.); (M.B.); (E.T.); (N.K.)
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4
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Kozmai AE, Mareev SA, Butylskii DY, Ruleva VD, Pismenskaya ND, Nikonenko VV. Low-frequency impedance of ion-exchange membrane with electrically heterogeneous surface. Electrochim Acta 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
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5
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Uzdenova A. Ion Transport in Electromembrane Systems under the Passage of Direct Current: 1D Modelling Approaches. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:421. [PMID: 37103848 PMCID: PMC10146742 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13040421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
For a theoretical analysis of mass transfer processes in electromembrane systems, the Nernst-Planck and Poisson equations (NPP) are generally used. In the case of 1D direct-current-mode modelling, a fixed potential (for example, zero) is set on one of the boundaries of the considered region, and on the other-a condition connecting the spatial derivative of the potential and the given current density. Therefore, in the approach based on the system of NPP equations, the accuracy of the solution is significantly affected by the accuracy of calculating the concentration and potential fields at this boundary. This article proposes a new approach to the description of the direct current mode in electromembrane systems, which does not require boundary conditions on the derivative of the potential. The essence of the approach is to replace the Poisson equation in the NPP system with the equation for the displacement current (NPD). Based on the system of NPD equations, the concentration profiles and the electric field were calculated in the depleted diffusion layer near the ion-exchange membrane, as well as in the cross section of the desalination channel under the direct current passage. The NPD system, as well as NPP, allows one to describe the formation of an extended space charge region near the surface of the ion-exchange membrane, which is important for describing overlimiting current modes. Comparison of the direct-current-mode modelling approaches based on NPP and NPD showed that the calculation time is less for the NPP approach, but the calculation accuracy is higher for the NPD approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminat Uzdenova
- Department of Computer Science and Computational Mathematics, Umar Aliev Karachai-Cherkess State University, Karachaevsk 369200, Russia
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6
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Hernández-Pérez L, Martí-Calatayud MC, Montañés MT, Pérez-Herranz V. Interplay between Forced Convection and Electroconvection during the Overlimiting Ion Transport through Anion-Exchange Membranes: A Fourier Transform Analysis of Membrane Voltage Drops. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:membranes13030363. [PMID: 36984750 PMCID: PMC10058907 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13030363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Electrodialysis (ED) applications have expanded in recent years and new modes of operation are being investigated. Operation at overlimiting currents involves the phenomenon of electroconvection, which is associated with the generation of vortices. These vortices accelerate the process of solution mixing, making it possible to increase the transport of ions across the membranes. In this work, frequency analysis is applied to investigate the interaction between different parameters on the development of electroconvection near anion-exchange membranes, which would provide a basis for the development of ED systems with favored electroconvection. Chronopotentiometric curves are registered and Fast Fourier Transform analysis is carried out to study the amplitude of the transmembrane voltage oscillations. Diverse behaviors are detected as a function of the level of forced convection and current density. The synergistic combination of forced convection and overlimiting currents leads to an increase in the signal amplitude, which is especially noticeable at frequencies around 0.1 Hz. Fast Fourier Transform analysis allows identifying, for a given system, the conditions that lead to a transition between stable and chaotic electroconvection modes.
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7
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Barros KS, Giacobbo A, Agnol GD, Velizarov S, Pérez–Herranz V, Bernardes AM. Evaluation of mass transfer behaviour of sulfamethoxazole species at ion–exchange membranes by chronopotentiometry for electrodialytic processes. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2023.117214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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8
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Mills R, Baldridge KC, Bernard M, Bhattacharyya D. Recent Advances in Responsive Membrane Functionalization Approaches and Applications. SEP SCI TECHNOL 2022; 58:1202-1236. [PMID: 37063489 PMCID: PMC10103845 DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2022.2145222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, significant advances have been made in the field of functionalized membranes. With the functionalization using various materials, such as polymers and enzymes, membranes can exhibit property changes in response to an environmental stimulation, such as heat, light, ionic strength, or pH. The resulting responsive nature allows for an increased breadth of membrane uses, due to the developed functionalization properties, such as smart-gating filtration for size-selective water contaminant removal, self-cleaning antifouling surfaces, increased scalability options, and highly sensitive molecular detection. In this review, new advances in both fabrication and applications of functionalized membranes are reported and summarized, including temperature-responsive, pH-responsive, light-responsive, enzyme-functionalized, and two-dimensional material-functionalized membranes. Specific emphasis was given to the most recent technological improvements, current limitations, advances in characterization techniques, and future directions for the field of functionalized membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rollie Mills
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky; Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Kevin C. Baldridge
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky; Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Matthew Bernard
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky; Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Dibakar Bhattacharyya
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky; Lexington, KY 40506, USA
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Hussain A, Yan H, Ul Afsar N, Wang H, Yan J, Jiang C, Wang Y, Xu T. Acid recovery from molybdenum metallurgical wastewater via selective electrodialysis and nanofiltration. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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10
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A strategy to avoid solid formation within the reactor during magnesium and calcium electrolytic removal from lithium-rich brines. J Solid State Electrochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-022-05219-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Gorobchenko AD, Skolotneva ED, Mareev SA. Influence of Electrodialyzer Channel Parameters on Chronopotentiometric Transition Time. MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s2517751622030052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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12
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Apel PY, Velizarov S, Volkov AV, Eliseeva TV, Nikonenko VV, Parshina AV, Pismenskaya ND, Popov KI, Yaroslavtsev AB. Fouling and Membrane Degradation in Electromembrane and Baromembrane Processes. MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s2517751622020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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13
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Rybalkina OA, Moroz IA, Gorobchenko AD, Pismenskaya ND, Nikonenko VV. Development of Electroconvection at the Undulate Surface of an Anion-Exchange Membrane in Sodium Chloride and Sodium Hydrogen Tartrate Solutions. MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s2517751622010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Tsygurina KA, Kirichenko EV, Kirichenko KA. Chronopotentiograms of MK-40 Cation Exchange Membrane Layer-by-Layer Modified with Polyallylamine and Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate. MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s2517751622010085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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A critical analysis on ion transport of organic acid mixture through an anion-exchange membrane during electrodialysis. Chem Eng Res Des 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2021.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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16
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Pismenskaya N, Rybalkina O, Moroz I, Mareev S, Nikonenko V. Influence of Electroconvection on Chronopotentiograms of an Anion-Exchange Membrane in Solutions of Weak Polybasic Acid Salts. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413518. [PMID: 34948329 PMCID: PMC8708104 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Visualization of electroconvective (EC) vortices at the undulated surface of an AMX anion-exchange membrane (Astom, Osaka, Japan) was carried out in parallel with the measurement of chronopotentiograms. Weak polybasic acid salts, including 0.02 M solutions of tartaric (NaHT), phosphoric (NaH2PO4), and citric (NaH2Cit) acids salts, and NaCl were investigated. It was shown that, for a given current density normalized to the theoretical limiting current calculated by the Leveque equation (i/ilimtheor), EC vortex zone thickness, dEC, decreases in the order NaCl > NaHT > NaH2PO4 > NaH2Cit. This order is inverse to the increase in the intensity of proton generation in the membrane systems under study. The higher the intensity of proton generation, the lower the electroconvection. This is due to the fact that protons released into the depleted solution reduce the space charge density, which is the driver of EC. In all studied systems, a region in chronopotentiograms between the rapid growth of the potential drop and the attainment of its stationary values corresponds to the appearance of EC vortex clusters. The amplitude of the potential drop oscillations in the chronopotentiograms is proportional to the size of the observed vortex clusters.
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Uzdenova A, Urtenov M. Mathematical Modeling of the Phenomenon of Space-Charge Breakdown in the Galvanostatic Mode in the Section of the Electromembrane Desalination Channel. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11110873. [PMID: 34832102 PMCID: PMC8624947 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11110873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
One of the ways to increase the efficiency of the desalination process in membrane systems is to use intensive current modes. Recently, the phenomenon of space-charge breakdown was theoretically described for desalination under intensive current modes. The space-charge breakdown is a decrease in the magnitude and size of the extended space charge regions (SCRs) of opposite signs, formed at the cation- and anion-exchange membranes in the desalination channel, when they approach each other. Therefore, this phenomenon negatively affects the intensity of electroconvection and the efficiency of mass transfer in membrane systems. We report the results of the first theoretical analysis of the space-charge breakdown in the galvanostatic electric mode, which is generally used in the research and operation of membrane systems. For this purpose, a one-dimensional model of the ion transfer of the electrolyte solution in the section of the desalination channel at the direct current is developed. The regularities of changes in the extended SCRs in the galvanostatic mode are determined. A relation is obtained for the onset time of the space-charge breakdown, which makes it possible to determine the parameters of the effective operation of the membrane system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminat Uzdenova
- Department of Computer Science and Computational Mathematics, Umar Aliev Karachai-Cherkess State University, 369202 Karachaevsk, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Makhamet Urtenov
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Kuban State University, 350040 Krasnodar, Russia;
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18
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Feijoo G, Barros K, Scarazzato T, Espinosa D. Electrodialysis for concentrating cobalt, chromium, manganese, and magnesium from a synthetic solution based on a nickel laterite processing route. Sep Purif Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Pismenskaya N, Bdiri M, Sarapulova V, Kozmai A, Fouilloux J, Baklouti L, Larchet C, Renard E, Dammak L. A Review on Ion-Exchange Membranes Fouling during Electrodialysis Process in Food Industry, Part 2: Influence on Transport Properties and Electrochemical Characteristics, Cleaning and Its Consequences. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11110811. [PMID: 34832040 PMCID: PMC8623251 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11110811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) are increasingly used in dialysis and electrodialysis processes for the extraction, fractionation and concentration of valuable components, as well as reagent-free control of liquid media pH in the food industry. Fouling of IEMs is specific compared to that observed in the case of reverse or direct osmosis, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, and other membrane processes. This specificity is determined by the high concentration of fixed groups in IEMs, as well as by the phenomena inherent only in electromembrane processes, i.e., induced by an electric field. This review analyzes modern scientific publications on the effect of foulants (mainly typical for the dairy, wine and fruit juice industries) on the structural, transport, mass transfer, and electrochemical characteristics of cation-exchange and anion-exchange membranes. The relationship between the nature of the foulant and the structure, physicochemical, transport properties and behavior of ion-exchange membranes in an electric field is analyzed using experimental data (ion exchange capacity, water content, conductivity, diffusion permeability, limiting current density, water splitting, electroconvection, etc.) and modern mathematical models. The implications of traditional chemical cleaning are taken into account in this analysis and modern non-destructive membrane cleaning methods are discussed. Finally, challenges for the near future were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Pismenskaya
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Kuban State University, 149 Stavropolskaya Str., 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.P.); (V.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Myriam Bdiri
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est (ICMPE), Université Paris-Est Créteil, CNRS, ICMPE, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France; (M.B.); (J.F.); (C.L.); (E.R.)
| | - Veronika Sarapulova
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Kuban State University, 149 Stavropolskaya Str., 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.P.); (V.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Anton Kozmai
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Kuban State University, 149 Stavropolskaya Str., 350040 Krasnodar, Russia; (N.P.); (V.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Julie Fouilloux
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est (ICMPE), Université Paris-Est Créteil, CNRS, ICMPE, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France; (M.B.); (J.F.); (C.L.); (E.R.)
| | - Lassaad Baklouti
- Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences and Arts at Al Rass, Qassim University, Ar Rass 51921, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Christian Larchet
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est (ICMPE), Université Paris-Est Créteil, CNRS, ICMPE, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France; (M.B.); (J.F.); (C.L.); (E.R.)
| | - Estelle Renard
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est (ICMPE), Université Paris-Est Créteil, CNRS, ICMPE, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France; (M.B.); (J.F.); (C.L.); (E.R.)
| | - Lasâad Dammak
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est (ICMPE), Université Paris-Est Créteil, CNRS, ICMPE, UMR 7182, 2 Rue Henri Dunant, 94320 Thiais, France; (M.B.); (J.F.); (C.L.); (E.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-145171786
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