Epidemiology and Genetic Risk Factors of Drug Hepatotoxicity

The Epidemiology of Newly Recognized Causes of Drug-Induced Liver Injury: An Update

The incidence and prevalence of drug-induced liver injury appear to be increasing globally, for example, with the introduction of checkpoint inhibitors. Several reviews have been published in the last decade on the epidemiology of DILI, both among hospitalized patients and in the general population, as well as from retrospective and prospective studies on DILI. Most of these reviews have not focused on newly recognized agents that have recently changed the landscape of DILI. Apart from liver injury associated with antibiotics, oncological agents, particularly checkpoint inhibitors, are increasingly being recognized as causing liver injury. The type of liver injury associated with these agents is not idiosyncratic but rather an indirect type of injury. Furthermore, recently, COVID-19 vaccines and green tea extract have been found to lead to liver injury. Checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized the treatment of many malignancies, such as malignant melanoma, lung cancer, and renal cancer. Via the activation of T cells, they can increase immune activity against malignant cells, but at the same time, they can decrease immune tolerance and therefore lead to immune-related adverse effects in many organs. The most common adverse effect in clinical practice is liver injury. A recent prospective study demonstrated an 8% frequency of DILI due to the use of checkpoint inhibitors among patients with malignant melanoma and renal cancer. This rate is much higher than observed with drugs, leading to idiosyncratic liver injury. Shortly after the implementation of the worldwide vaccination program against COVID-19, several case reports were published on suspected vaccination-induced autoimmune-like hepatitis occurring shortly after the vaccination. At first, these reports were met with skepticism, but currently, around 100 reports have been published, and cases of positive recurrence have been reported. The clinical, biochemical, immunological, and histological features are indistinguishable from classic autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). These reactions are very similar to drug-induced autoimmune-like hepatitis (DI-ALH) due to drugs such as nitrofurantoin, minocycline, and infliximab, which do not relapse after a short course of corticosteroids, which is the general rule in classic autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Green tea extract has been found to be a well-documented cause of acute hepatocellular liver injury with jaundice. A strong HLA association has been reported, showing a high prevalence of HLA-B*35:01 among patients suffering from green tea-induced liver injury. Overall, 3% of patients recruited in the DILIN study were supplemented with green tea extract as one of the ingredients. In a prospective population-based study from Iceland, green tea was implicated in approximately 8% of patients with DILI.

Toxin-Induced Liver Injury and Extracorporeal Treatment of Liver Failure

Poisoning with a large variety of drugs and naturally occurring toxins may result in acute liver injury and failure. Drug-induced liver injury is a major cause of liver failure nationwide, and it is likely that nephrologists will be involved in treating patients with these conditions. A number of xenobiotics resulting in liver toxicity may cause acute kidney injury or other organ injury as well. Most agents causing drug- or toxin-induced liver failure lack specific therapies, although a few xenobiotics such as acetaminophen have effective antidotal therapies if administered prior to development of hepatotoxicity. The nephrologist should be aware that extracorporeal treatment of liver failure associated with drugs and toxins may be indicated, including therapies conventionally performed by nephrologists (hemodialysis, continuous kidney replacement therapy), therapies occasionally performed by nephrologists and other specialists (plasma exchange, albumin dialysis, hemadsorption), and therapies performed by other specialists (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation). An overview of the role of these therapies in liver failure is provided, as well as a review of their limitations and potential complications.

Drug induced liver injury - a 2023 update

Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) constitutes hepatic damage attributed to drug exposure. DILI may be categorized as hepatocellular, cholestatic or mixed and might also involve immune responses. When DILI occurs in dose-dependent manner, it is referred to as intrinsic, while if the injury occurs spontaneously, it is termed as idiosyncratic. This review predominately focused on idiosyncratic liver injury. The established molecular mechanisms for DILI include (1) mitochondria dysfunction, (2) increased reactive oxygen species levels, (3) presence of elevated apoptosis and necrosis, (4) and bile duct injuries associated with immune mediated pathways. However, it should be emphasized that the underlying mechanisms responsible for DILI are still unknown. Prevention strategies are critical as incidences occur frequently, and treatment options are limited once the injury has developed. The aim of this review was to utilize retrospective cohort studies from across the globe to gain insight into epidemiological patterns. This review considers (1) what is currently known regarding the mechanisms underlying DILI, (2) discusses potential risk factors and (3) implications of the coronavirus pandemic on DILI presentation and research. Future perspectives are also considered and discussed and include potential new biomarkers, causality assessment and reporting methods.

Drug-induced liver injury and COVID-19: Use of artificial intelligence and the updated Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method in clinical practice

BACKGROUND

Liver injury is a relevant condition in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) inpatients. Pathophysiology varies from direct infection by virus, systemic inflammation or drug-induced adverse reaction (DILI). DILI detection and monitoring is clinically relevant, as it may contribute to poor prognosis, prolonged hospitalization and increase indirect healthcare costs. Artificial Intelligence (AI) applied in data mining of electronic medical records combining abnormal liver tests, keyword searching tools, and risk factors analysis is a relevant opportunity for early DILI detection by automated algorithms.

AIM

To describe DILI cases in COVID-19 inpatients detected from data mining in electronic medical records (EMR) using AI and the updated Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM).

METHODS

The study was conducted in March 2021 in a hospital in southern Brazil. The NoHarm^© system uses AI to support decision making in clinical pharmacy. Hospital admissions were 100523 during this period, of which 478 met the inclusion criteria. From these, 290 inpatients were excluded due to alternative causes of liver injury and/or due to not having COVID-19. We manually reviewed the EMR of 188 patients for DILI investigation. Absence of clinical information excluded most eligible patients. The DILI assessment causality was possible via the updated RUCAM in 17 patients.

RESULTS

Mean patient age was 53 years (SD ± 18.37; range 22-83), most were male (70%), and admitted to the non-intensive care unit sector (65%). Liver injury pattern was mainly mixed, mean time to normalization of liver markers was 10 d, and mean length of hospitalization was 20.5 d (SD ± 16; range 7-70). Almost all patients recovered from DILI and one patient died of multiple organ failure. There were 31 suspected drugs with the following RUCAM score: Possible (n = 24), probable (n = 5), and unlikely (n = 2). DILI agents in our study were ivermectin, bicalutamide, linezolid, azithromycin, ceftriaxone, amoxicillin-clavulanate, tocilizumab, piperacillin-tazobactam, and albendazole. Lack of essential clinical information excluded most patients. Although rare, DILI is a relevant clinical condition in COVID-19 patients and may contribute to poor prognostics.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of DILI in COVID-19 inpatients is rare and the absence of relevant clinical information on EMR may underestimate DILI rates. Prospects involve creation and validation of alerts for risk factors in all DILI patients based on RUCAM assessment causality, alterations of liver biomarkers and AI and machine learning.

Incidence and Economic Burden of Adverse Drug Reactions in Hospitalization: A Prospective Study in Korea

BACKGROUND

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are escalating, and their socioeconomic burden is increasing. However, large-scale prospective studies investigating ADRs during hospitalization are rare in Korea. We prospectively investigated the incidence, characteristics, and economic burden of ADRs in hospitalized patients based on electronic medical records (EMRs).

METHODS

Among patients admitted to three hospitals from October 2016 to October 2017, 5,000 patients were randomly selected and prospectively observed during hospitalization. Research nurses monitored and detected patients who had symptoms, signs, or laboratory findings suspicious for ADRs using an EMR-based detection protocol. Next, allergy and ADR specialists reviewed the medical records to determine the relationship between adverse reactions and drugs. Cases in which a causal relationship was certain, probable/likely, or possible were included in the ADR cases. Clinically meaningful ADR cases or those leading to prolonged hospitalization were defined as significant ADRs.

RESULTS

ADRs occurred in 510 (10.2%) patients. The mean length of hospital stay was approximately 5 days longer in patients with ADRs. Opioids accounted for the highest percentage of total ADRs. Significant ADRs were observed in 148 (3.0%) patients. Antibiotics accounted for the highest percentage of significant ADRs. Drug hypersensitivity reactions (DHRs) occurred in 88 (1.8%) patients. Antibiotics accounted for the highest percentage of DHRs. The average medical expenses for one day of hospitalization per patient were highest in significant ADRs, followed by non-significant ADRs, and non-ADRs.

CONCLUSION

ADRs in hospitalized patients are an important clinical issue, resulting in a substantial socioeconomic burden. EMR-based strategy could be a useful tool for ADR monitoring and early detection.

Hepatotoxicity Induced by Azole Antifungal Agents: A Review Study

Context

Fungal infections are very common, and several medications are used to treat them. Azoles are prescribed widely to treat fungal infections. In addition to therapeutic effects, any drug can be accompanied by side effects in patients. One of the most important complications in this regard is liver injury. Therefore, hepatotoxicity induced by azole antifungal drugs were reviewed in this study.

Evidence Acquisition

English scientific papers were evaluated to review the effects of hepatotoxicity by azole antifungal agents, and the related studies' results were summarized using a table. The systematic search was implemented on electronic databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. Original articles and review articles that were published before April 1, 2022, were included in the study. Those articles without available full text or non-English articles were excluded. Also, articles that reported pediatric data were excluded.

Results

Most studies have reported the effects of hepatotoxicity by azole antifungal agents, and their mechanisms have been described.

Conclusions

Clinical evaluations regarding the hepatotoxicity of antifungal agents provided in the literature were reviewed. Therefore, it is recommended to prescribe these drugs with caution in high-risk patients suffering from liver diseases, and patients should be monitored for hepatotoxicity. However, more research is needed to evaluate the hepatotoxicity of azole antifungal agents and select appropriate drugs according to cost-effectiveness and the side effects' profiles, relying on lower incidence of this liver complication.

Liver Transplantation for Acute Liver Injury in Asians Is More Likely Due to Herbal and Dietary Supplements

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) due to medications and herbal and dietary supplements (HDSs) is a major cause of acute liver injury leading to liver transplantation (LT). This study used United Network for Organ Sharing LT data to analyze severe HDS-induced acute liver injury in the United States. By convention, patients with acute DILI are listed as "Acute Hepatic Necrosis" (AHN) under the subheading "AHN: Drug Other Specify." All patients waitlisted from 1994 to 2020 were divided into 3 subgroups: "HDS DILI," "Non-HDS DILI," and "AHN: unknown drug." Analyses were performed to identify epidemiologic differences between patients with HDS DILI and non-HDS DILI. A subanalysis was performed for transplanted patients, including longitudinal changes. Of 1875 patients waitlisted for LT, 736 (39.2%) underwent LT. The proportion of Asian patients in the HDS DILI group was significantly higher compared with that in the non-HDS DILI group (17.4% versus 3.8%; P < 0.001). Excluding acetaminophen cases, the proportion of Black patients in the HDS DILI versus non-HDS group was significantly lower (8.7% versus 25.3%; P < 0.001). Waitlisted patients with HDS DILI were significantly older (median age, 38 years for HDS DILI versus 31 years for non-HDS DILI; P = 0.03). Lastly, the number of patients requiring LT due to HDS DILI increased significantly over time with more than 70% of cases occurring in the last 10 years (2010-2020) compared with the prior 15 years (1994-2009; Ptrend  = 0.001). Ethnicity may help in identifying the cause of severe acute DILI, a growing problem as more patients experiment with HDS.

Severe Drug-Induced Liver Injury in the Military: A Retrospective Review

OBJECTIVES

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Establishing a diagnosis is challenging due to the broad differential diagnosis of liver injury. We retrospectively reviewed patients with severe idiosyncratic DILI at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in order to define the scope and patterns of injury in the military population.

METHODS

Using the military health database, we identified a total of 110 patients who had an International Classification of Disease (ICD)-10 code for toxic liver injury in the electronic medical record at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center between 2016 and 2019. Each patient record was reviewed, and all pertinent data for included patients were recorded into a database for analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven out of 110 patients with a diagnostic code for toxic liver injury met inclusion criteria for severe idiosyncratic DILI. Nine cases were caused by supplements, including 5 active duty service members using synthetic anabolic steroids or preworkout supplements. The majority of patients were men and one-third were serving on active duty. The ranges of liver enzyme elevation and patterns of liver injury widely varied.

CONCLUSION

Military service members are at particularly high risk for DILI given the frequent use of over-the-counter and other unregulated strength- and performance-enhancing supplements. These injuries not only have significant medical consequences but can profoundly impact military readiness and mission capability. Diagnosis of DILI among active duty service members requires a strong index of suspicion, and inquiry regarding all ingestions is crucial. Educating physicians, providers, and policy makers on the risks of supplement-induced liver injury among service members is crucial. These data will facilitate additional studies exploring susceptibility to severe idiosyncratic DILI among the military population.

A Critical Perspective on 3D Liver Models for Drug Metabolism and Toxicology Studies

The poor predictability of human liver toxicity is still causing high attrition rates of drug candidates in the pharmaceutical industry at the non-clinical, clinical, and post-marketing authorization stages. This is in part caused by animal models that fail to predict various human adverse drug reactions (ADRs), resulting in undetected hepatotoxicity at the non-clinical phase of drug development. In an effort to increase the prediction of human hepatotoxicity, different approaches to enhance the physiological relevance of hepatic in vitro systems are being pursued. Three-dimensional (3D) or microfluidic technologies allow to better recapitulate hepatocyte organization and cell-matrix contacts, to include additional cell types, to incorporate fluid flow and to create gradients of oxygen and nutrients, which have led to improved differentiated cell phenotype and functionality. This comprehensive review addresses the drug-induced hepatotoxicity mechanisms and the currently available 3D liver in vitro models, their characteristics, as well as their advantages and limitations for human hepatotoxicity assessment. In addition, since toxic responses are greatly dependent on the culture model, a comparative analysis of the toxicity studies performed using two-dimensional (2D) and 3D in vitro strategies with recognized hepatotoxic compounds, such as paracetamol, diclofenac, and troglitazone is performed, further highlighting the need for harmonization of the respective characterization methods. Finally, taking a step forward, we propose a roadmap for the assessment of drugs hepatotoxicity based on fully characterized fit-for-purpose in vitro models, taking advantage of the best of each model, which will ultimately contribute to more informed decision-making in the drug development and risk assessment fields.

Antidepressants- and antipsychotics-induced hepatotoxicity

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a serious health burden. It has diverse clinical presentations that can escalate to acute liver failure. The worldwide increase in the use of psychotropic drugs, their long-term use on a daily basis, common comorbidities of psychiatric and metabolic disorders, and polypharmacy in psychiatric patients increase the incidence of psychotropics-induced DILI. During the last 2 decades, hepatotoxicity of various antidepressants (ADs) and antipsychotics (APs) received much attention. Comprehensive review and discussion of accumulated literature data concerning this issue are performed in this study, as hepatotoxic effects of most commonly prescribed ADs and APs are classified, described, and discussed. The review focuses on ADs and APs characterized by the risk of causing liver damage and highlights the ones found to cause life-threatening or severe DILI cases. In parallel, an overview of hepatic oxidative stress, inflammation, and steatosis underlying DILI is provided, followed by extensive review and discussion of the pathophysiology of AD- and AP-induced DILI revealed in case reports, and animal and in vitro studies. The consequences of some ADs and APs ability to affect drug-metabolizing enzymes and therefore provoke drug–drug interactions are also addressed. Continuous collecting of data on drugs, mechanisms, and risk factors for DILI, as well as critical data reviewing, is crucial for easier DILI diagnosis and more efficient risk assessment of AD- and AP-induced DILI. Higher awareness of ADs and APs hepatotoxicity is the prerequisite for their safe use and optimal dosing.

[Adverse drug reactions profiles for abiraterone and enzalutamide: A pharmacovigilance descriptive analysis]

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to describe the profile of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) observed with abiraterone and enzalutamide, based on cases registered in the French regional pharmacovigilance centres to identify potential pharmacovigilance signals.

METHODS

We extracted from the French pharmacovigilance database all cases of ADRs or drug interactions involving abiraterone or enzalutamide from the time they market authorization date until December 31st, 2017. Signal detection results have been transmitted by the French Agency for Health Products (ANSM). The data were compared with those of the risk management plans for each drug and the literature.

RESULTS

Among the 233 observations analyzed, nearly 62% involved abiraterone as a suspect drug and 38% involved enzalutamide; only 1 case involved both drugs. The ADRs profile is different between the drugs. Abiraterone is mostly associated with expected cardiac diseases (heart failure, and QT prolongation), expected with the drug. Also described, several cases of hepatotoxicity have been reported, however some cases with fatal outcome suggest that despite a follow-up of the liver function tests, it is difficult to anticipate this risk. Signals concerning acute renal failure and ischemic stroke have arisen. Enzalutamide is more particularly associated with various neurological disorders (convulsions, hallucinations, fatigue, and memory impairment) expected with the drug. While ischemic heart disease is also expected, signals of heart failure and atrial fibrillation have arisen. A potential hepatotoxicity of the molecule is discussed because of cases of cholestatic hepatitis.

CONCLUSION

The analysis of the French pharmacovigilance database cases allows to confirm an expected and monitored risk profile in the risk management plan for both drugs. Several signals have arisen, some of which will be investigated through a pharmacoepidemiology study.

A possible increase in liver enzymes due to amlodipine: A case report

Amlodipine is a commonly prescribed antihypertensive drug, well tolerated and has rarely been attributed as a cause for elevated liver enzymes. Here, we present a 47-year-old male patient known to be hypertensive and admitted to our rehabilitation facility after an acute stroke. During his stay, amlodipine was started in addition to other antihypertensive medications to control his blood pressure. His liver transaminases after 4 days (notably alanine aminotransferase) were found to be markedly elevated. After reviewing the medications and investigating probable causes, amlodipine was suspended. After 5 days of suspending amlodipine, the transaminases started to trend downward. The Naranjo Adverse Drug Reaction Probability Scale and the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method were performed to assess causality in this suspected idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury case. Both the scores denoted a probable amlodipine-induced liver injury. Previous case reports related to amlodipine-induced liver injury are mentioned and presented in the table below. In conclusion, amlodipine, though not well known to be hepatotoxic, can induce liver enzyme elevations in an idiosyncratic manner.

Cortex dictamni-induced liver injury in mice: The role of P450-mediated metabolic activation of furanoids

Many furan containing compounds have been reported to be toxic resulted from the metabolic activation of the furan ring to reactive metabolite (RM). Cortex Dictamni (CD), a widely used herbal medicine, has been reported to cause severe even fatal hepatotoxicity. The injurious components and mechanism of CD-induced liver injury remain unclear. Our preliminary study showed that dictamnine, one major furanoid in CD, caused mouse liver injury via its reactive epoxide metabolite. Besides dictamnine, the major components of CD are series of bioactivation-alerting furanoids. Thus, we hypothesize that series of furanoids in CD may undergo metabolic activation and play a key role in CD-induced liver injury. Here, a single oral dose of 60 g/kg ethanol extract of CD (ECD) caused severe hepatocellular necrosis in mice at 24 h post-dose. ECD-induced liver injury showed a dose- and time-dependent manner. The hepatotoxic effects could be completely abolished by P450 nonselective inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) and strongly modulated by other P450 modulators. The furanoids-concentrated fraction of ECD was responsible for the hepatotoxicity. At least ten furanoids with high abundance in ECD, such as obakunone, dictamnine, fraxinellone, limonin, were found to be metabolized to reactive epoxide or cis-enedione. The RM levels were consistent with the liver injury degree. Multiple furanoids, rather than single one, cooperatively contributed to the hepatotoxicity. ECD-induced liver injury could be reproduced by a mixture of pure furanoids. In summary, this study provides toxic component profiles of CD and demonstrates that P450-mediated bioactivation of multiple furanoids is responsible for CD-induced liver injury.

Drug induced liver injury is associated with high mortality-A study from a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan

Background and aim

In light of few established drug induced liver injury (DILI) registries, this study aims to evaluate the clinical spectrum and predictors of mortality and morbidity of hospitalized patients with suspected DILI.

Patients and methods

DILI cases were identified and categorized on basis of COIMS/RUCAM score and the exclusion of other liver diseases. Clinical and laboratory parameters were analyzed to identify the predictors of morbidity (prolonged hospital stay > 5 days) and mortality.

Results

Out of 462 patients, there were 264 (57.6%) males and the mean age of the cohort was 50.83 years (range: 20–94 years). DILI was classified as definite or highly probable in 31.1%, probable in 62.5%, and possible in 7.4% of cases. Pattern of liver injury was hepatocellular in 25.1%, cholestatic in 56.17%, and mixed in 18.72% of patients. Anti-tuberculosis drugs (ATDs) were found to be the most common category of drugs causing DILI, in 295 (63.9%) patients. Clinically, encephalopathy was present in 21.6% patients; other presenting symptoms included abdominal pain (57.1%), vomiting (57.1%), jaundice (54.1%) and pruritus (42.3%). In-hospital mortality was 26.5% and prolonged hospital stay (> 5 days) was observed in 35.93% of patients. Mortality was significantly greater in patients with encephalopathy, male gender, hepatocellular pattern of DILI, increased INR and use of ventilator support.

Conclusion

In our study, the most frequent cause of DILI in hospitalized patients was ATDs. More than a quarter of patients died during hospital stay. A close control of clinical and biochemical parameters are required to prevent and monitor DILI, especially in patients taking ATDs in our region.

Liver Test Monitoring: Real-World Compliance for Drugs with Monitoring Requirements at 2-Week Intervals or More Frequently

BACKGROUND

Monitoring risk is often an important component of therapy. Some compounds require liver test (LT) monitoring, with the frequency detailed in the product label. Compliance with these instructions is generally unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this short study was to describe LT compliance for compounds with monitoring recommended at 2-week intervals or more frequently in three US administrative claims databases.

METHODS

The sample was drawn from three US claims databases during the period 1 January 2015 through 30 June 2018. This study examined nine compounds and five types of LTs. We looked at compounds in a published list of drugs requiring LTs at 2-week intervals or more frequently. Descriptive statistics about the days between tests were reported, as were the number and proportion of tests associated with each drug that met the recommended frequency.

RESULTS

Compliance was < 33% with four drugs (ketoconazole, succimer, pentamidine, and felbamate) and > 60% with five drugs (oxaliplatin, rifampin, tolcapone, albendazole, and azathioprine). Among drugs with more than 1000 drug eras observed (all but succimer and tolcapone), LT compliance was highest for oxaliplatin (75.3%) and lowest for pentamidine (20.6%), with little difference in overall compliance by type of test (range 41-46).

CONCLUSION

Compliance with frequent LT monitoring differed for the drugs examined. Two strata were found: compliance > 60% (oxaliplatin, rifampin, tolcapone, albendazole, and azathioprine) and compliance 20-30% (ketoconazole, succimer, pentamidine, and felbamate). No drug reached 80% compliance.

Glutamine powder-induced hepatotoxicity: it is time to understand the side effects of sports nutritional supplements

Glutamine has been considered as a dietary supplement with a non-essential amino acid structure. Some studies have found that liver failure may be associated with a high plasma glutamine level. Consumption of this product may be linked to potential adverse effects. This report describes the first case of glutamine-induced hepatotoxicity. A 35-year-old female athlete with severe abdominal pain and scleral icterus was referred to the hospital. She had been taking glutamine powder for the past three weeks. Impaired liver function test and imaging evaluation suggested hepatotoxicity. Glutamine consumption was discontinued and the patient was closely monitored. Finally, after two weeks, the patient recovered successfully. This novel case was the first report regarding glutamine-induced hepatotoxicity. Health care providers must know that consumption of dietary supplements such as glutamine may be associated with serious side effects. Liver damage is a possible side effect of glutamine. Hence it is necessary to consider hepatotoxicity as an adverse reaction in case of glutamine supplement consumption.

Unfavorable prognosis of patients with acute liver injury due to drug-induced liver injury and acute exacerbation of hepatitis B virus infection

AIM

Acute liver injury (ALI) has a favorable prognosis, whereas acute liver failure (ALF) leads to organ failure and thus has an unfavorable prognosis. The effect of each etiology on the clinical course of ALI remains unclear. This study aimed to determine how each etiology and glucocorticoid on the unfavorable etiology affects the clinical course of ALI.

METHODS

This prospective observational study enrolled 522 patients with ALI/ALF from 2004 and 2017. To evaluate the influence of etiology on prognosis, decision tree analysis was carried out using age, disease type, etiology, and the presence of hepatic encephalopathy.

RESULTS

Of 522 patients, 398 patients satisfied the ALI criteria at registration in this study. The ALI etiologies were as follows: viral hepatitis through oral infection (n = 54), acute hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (n = 24), acute exacerbation of HBV infection (n = 30), de novo hepatitis due to HBV (n = 5), autoimmune hepatitis (n = 59), drug-induced liver injury (DILI; n = 85), other viruses (n = 12), and undetermined (n = 129). ALI in 46 patients progressed to ALF after registration. Of 11 patients (age >52 years) with ALF due to acute exacerbation of HBV infection or DILI, seven patients (63.6%) died. Whether glucocorticoid affected the clinical course of ALI due to acute exacerbation of HBV infection or DILI was evaluated using propensity score matching (age, sex, alanine aminotransferase, total bilirubin, and prothrombin time-international normalized ratio). Glucocorticoid did not improve the prognosis of ALI patients due to the two etiologies.

CONCLUSIONS

Progression of ALI due to DILI or acute exacerbation of HBV infection to ALF showed a poor prognosis.

Drug-induced liver injury

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI), including herbal and dietary supplement hepatotoxicity, is often passed lightly; however, it can lead to the requirement of a liver transplant or may even cause death because of liver failure. Recently, the American College of Gastroenterology, Chinese Society of Hepatology and European Association for the Study of the Liver guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of DILI have been established, and they will be helpful for guiding clinical treatment decisions. Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method scoring is the most commonly used method to diagnose DILI; however, it has some limitations, such as poor validity and reproducibility. Recently, studies on new biomarkers have been actively carried out, which will help diagnose DILI and predict the prognosis of DILI. It is expected that the development of new therapies such as autophagy inducers and various other technologies of the fourth industrial revolution will be applicable to DILI research.

Herb-Induced Liver Injury: Phylogenetic Relationship, Structure-Toxicity Relationship, and Herb-Ingredient Network Analysis

Currently, hundreds of herbal products with potential hepatotoxicity were available in the literature. A comprehensive summary and analysis focused on these potential hepatotoxic herbal products may assist in understanding herb-induced liver injury (HILI). In this work, we collected 335 hepatotoxic medicinal plants, 296 hepatotoxic ingredients, and 584 hepatoprotective ingredients through a systematic literature retrieval. Then we analyzed these data from the perspectives of phylogenetic relationship and structure-toxicity relationship. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that hepatotoxic medicinal plants tended to have a closer taxonomic relationship. By investigating the structures of the hepatotoxic ingredients, we found that alkaloids and terpenoids were the two major groups of hepatotoxicity. We also identified eight major skeletons of hepatotoxicity and reviewed their hepatotoxic mechanisms. Additionally, 15 structural alerts (SAs) for hepatotoxicity were identified based on SARpy software. These SAs will help to estimate the hepatotoxic risk of ingredients from herbs. Finally, a herb-ingredient network was constructed by integrating multiple datasets, which will assist to identify the hepatotoxic ingredients of herb/herb-formula quickly. In summary, a systemic analysis focused on HILI was conducted which will not only assist to identify the toxic molecular basis of hepatotoxic herbs but also contribute to decipher the mechanisms of HILI.

Incidence, clinical features, and risk factors of fluoroquinolone-induced acute liver injury: a case-control study

Background

Fluoroquinolone-related hepatotoxicity is rare but serious and is attracting increasing attention. We explored the incidence, clinical features and risk factors of acute liver injury associated with fluoroquinolone use.

Materials and methods

Based on the Adverse Drug Events Active Surveillance and Assessment System that we developed, we carried out a case-control study by enrolling patients who were hospitalized and received fluoroquinolones to treat or prevent infections at the Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital from Jan 2016 to Dec 2017. The incidence of fluoroquinolone-induced acute liver injury was estimated, and logistic regression was used to reveal the risk factors of this adverse reaction.

Results

We found that 17,822 patients received fluoroquinolones, and 13,678 of them met the inclusion criteria. A total of 91 patients developed acute liver injury after receiving the medication, and 369 controls were matched to these patients. The overall incidence of fluoroquinolone-induced acute liver injury in the Chinese population is approximately 6-7 cases per 1,000 individuals annually. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that older age slightly decreased the risk of hepatotoxicity (OR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.96-0.99). The male sex (OR, 2.19; 95% CI, 1.07-4.48), alcohol abuse (OR, 2.91; 95% CI, 1.39-6.11) and hepatitis B carrier status (OR, 2.38; 95% CI, 1.04-5.48) increased the risk of liver injury. Concurrent use of cephalosporins or carbapenems was also associated with an increased risk.

Conclusion

Increased risk of fluoroquinolone-related hepatotoxicity may be associated with youth, the male sex, alcohol abuse, hepatitis B carrier status and the concurrent use of cephalosporins or carbapenems.

Pre-Existing Liver Disease and Toxicity of Antifungals

Pre-existing liver disease in patients with invasive fungal infections further complicates their management. Altered pharmacokinetics and tolerance issues of antifungal drugs are important concerns. Adjustment of the dosage of antifungal agents in these cases can be challenging given that current evidence to guide decision-making is limited. This comprehensive review aims to evaluate the existing evidence related to antifungal treatment in individuals with liver dysfunction. This article also provides suggestions for dosage adjustment of antifungal drugs in patients with varying degrees of hepatic impairment, after accounting for established or emerging pharmacokinetic–pharmacodynamic relationships with regard to antifungal drug efficacy in vivo.

Late-onset isavuconazole-induced liver injury

Antifungal agents account for approximately 3% of Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) cases. Isavuconazole is a novel triazole, and experience with long-term use of it is lacking. We report a case of late-onset DILI occurring after 11 months of isavuconazole therapy in a 55-year old man of Angolan descent on long-term antifungal therapy for the management of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis complicating previously treated pulmonary tuberculosis. The DILI could be described as idiosyncratic as it was not associated with high isavuconazole serum levels and his liver function tests returned to normal following treatment discontinuation.

Model Systems for Studying the Role of Canalicular Efflux Transporters in Drug-Induced Cholestatic Liver Disease

Bile formation is a key function of the liver. Disturbance of bile flow may lead to liver disease and is called cholestasis. Cholestasis may be inherited, for example, in progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis or acquired, for example, by drug-mediated inhibition of bile salt export from hepatocytes into the canaliculi. The key transport system for exporting bile salts into the canaliculi is the bile salt export pump. Inhibition of the bile salt export pump by drugs is a well-established cause of drug-induced cholestasis. Investigation of the role of the multidrug resistance protein 3, essential for biliary phospholipid secretion, is emerging now. This overview summarizes current concepts and methods with an emphasis on in vitro model systems for the investigation of drug-induced cholestasis in the general context of drug-induced liver injury.