1
|
Shafique S, Setti W, Campus C, Zanchi S, Del Bue A, Gori M. How path integration abilities of blind people change in different exploration conditions. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1375225. [PMID: 38826777 PMCID: PMC11140012 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1375225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
For animals to locate resources and stay safe, navigation is an essential cognitive skill. Blind people use different navigational strategies to encode the environment. Path integration significantly influences spatial navigation, which is the ongoing update of position and orientation during self-motion. This study examines two separate things: (i) how guided and non-guided strategies affect blind individuals in encoding and mentally representing a trajectory and (ii) the sensory preferences for potential navigational aids through questionnaire-based research. This study first highlights the significant role that the absence of vision plays in understanding body centered and proprioceptive cues. Furthermore, it also underscores the urgent need to develop navigation-assistive technologies customized to meet the specific needs of users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shehzaib Shafique
- Unit of Visually Impaired People (U-VIP), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| | - Walter Setti
- Unit of Visually Impaired People (U-VIP), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| | - Claudio Campus
- Unit of Visually Impaired People (U-VIP), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| | - Silvia Zanchi
- Unit of Visually Impaired People (U-VIP), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| | - Alessio Del Bue
- Pattern Analysis and Computer Vision (PAVIS), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| | - Monica Gori
- Unit of Visually Impaired People (U-VIP), Italian Institute of Technology, Genova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Geno O, Critelli K, Arduino C, Crane BT, Anson ER. Psychometrics of inertial heading perception. J Vestib Res 2024; 34:83-92. [PMID: 38640182 DOI: 10.3233/ves-230077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inertial self-motion perception is thought to depend primarily on otolith cues. Recent evidence demonstrated that vestibular perceptual thresholds (including inertial heading) are adaptable, suggesting novel clinical approaches for treating perceptual impairments resulting from vestibular disease. OBJECTIVE Little is known about the psychometric properties of perceptual estimates of inertial heading like test-retest reliability. Here we investigate the psychometric properties of a passive inertial heading perceptual test. METHODS Forty-seven healthy subjects participated across two visits, performing in an inertial heading discrimination task. The point of subjective equality (PSE) and thresholds for heading discrimination were identified for the same day and across day tests. Paired t-tests determined if the PSE or thresholds significantly changed and a mixed interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) model examined test-retest reliability. Minimum detectable change (MDC) was calculated for PSE and threshold for heading discrimination. RESULTS Within a testing session, the heading discrimination PSE score test-retest reliability was good (ICC = 0. 80) and did not change (t(1,36) = -1.23, p = 0.23). Heading discrimination thresholds were moderately reliable (ICC = 0.67) and also stable (t(1,36) = 0.10, p = 0.92). Across testing sessions, heading direction PSE scores were moderately correlated (ICC = 0.59) and stable (t(1,46) = -0.44, p = 0.66). Heading direction thresholds had poor reliability (ICC = 0.03) and were significantly smaller at the second visit (t(1,46) = 2.8, p = 0.008). MDC for heading direction PSE ranged from 6-9 degrees across tests. CONCLUSION The current results indicate moderate reliability for heading perception PSE and provide clinical context for interpreting change in inertial vestibular self-motion perception over time or after an intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Geno
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
| | - Kyle Critelli
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
| | - Cesar Arduino
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
| | - Benjamin T Crane
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
| | - Eric R Anson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chari DA, Ahmad M, King S, Boutabla A, Fattahi C, Panic AS, Karmali F, Lewis RF. Vestibular damage affects the precision and accuracy of navigation in a virtual visual environment. Brain Commun 2023; 5:fcad345. [PMID: 38116141 PMCID: PMC10729862 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcad345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Vestibular information is available to the brain during navigation, as are the other self-generated (idiothetic) and external (allothetic) sensorimotor cues that contribute to central estimates of position and motion. Rodent studies provide strong evidence that vestibular information contributes to navigation but human studies have been less conclusive. Furthermore, sex-based differences have been described in human navigation studies performed with the head stationary, a situation where dynamic vestibular (and other idiothetic) information is absent, but sex differences in the utilization of vestibular information have not been described. Here, we studied men and women with severe bilateral vestibular damage as they navigated through a visually barren virtual reality environment and compared their performance to normal men and women. Two navigation protocols were employed, which either activated dynamic idiothetic cues ('dynamic task', navigate by turning, walking in place) or eliminated them ('static task', navigate with key presses, head stationary). For both protocols, we employed a standard 'triangle completion task' in which subjects moved to two visual targets in series and then were required to return to their perceived starting position without localizing visual information. The angular and linear 'accuracy' (derived from response error) and 'precision' (derived from response variability) were calculated. Comparing performance 'within tasks', navigation on the dynamic paradigm was worse in male vestibular-deficient patients than in normal men but vestibular-deficient and normal women were equivalent; on the static paradigm, vestibular-deficient men (but not women) performed better than normal subjects. Comparing performance 'between tasks', normal men performed better on the dynamic than the static paradigm while vestibular-deficient men and both normal and vestibular-deficient women were equivalent on both tasks. Statistical analysis demonstrated that for the angular precision metric, sex had a significant effect on the interaction between vestibular status and the test paradigm. These results provide evidence that humans use vestibular information when they navigate in a virtual visual environment and that men and women may utilize vestibular (and visual) information differently. On our navigation paradigm, men used vestibular information to improve navigation performance, and in the presence of severe vestibular damage, they utilized visual information more effectively. In contrast, we did not find evidence that women used vestibular information while navigating on our virtual task, nor did we find evidence that they improved their utilization of visual information in the presence of severe vestibular damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Divya A Chari
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester MA 01655, USA
| | - Maimuna Ahmad
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester MA 01655, USA
| | - Susan King
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
| | - Anissa Boutabla
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Division of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
| | - Cameron Fattahi
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester MA 01655, USA
| | - Alexander S Panic
- Ashton Graybiel Spatial Orientation Lab, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Faisal Karmali
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Richard F Lewis
- Department of Otolaryngolgy-Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston MA 02114, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Aims of the present article are: 1) assessing vestibular contribution to spatial navigation, 2) exploring how age, global positioning systems (GPS) use, and vestibular navigation contribute to subjective sense of direction (SOD), 3) evaluating vestibular navigation in patients with lesions of the vestibular-cerebellum (patients with downbeat nystagmus, DBN) that could inform on the signals carried by vestibulo-cerebellar-cortical pathways. We applied two navigation tasks on a rotating chair in the dark: return-to-start (RTS), where subjects drive the chair back to the origin after discrete angular displacement stimuli (path reversal), and complete-the-circle (CTC) where subjects drive the chair on, all the way round to origin (path completion). We examined 24 normal controls (20-83 yr), five patients with DBN (62-77 yr) and, as proof of principle, two patients with early dementia (84 and 76 yr). We found a relationship between SOD, assessed by Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale, and subject's age (positive), GPS use (negative), and CTC-vestibular-navigation-task (positive). Age-related decline in vestibular navigation was observed with the RTS task but not with the complex CTC task. Vestibular navigation was normal in patients with vestibulo-cerebellar dysfunction but abnormal, particularly CTC, in the demented patients. We conclude that vestibular navigation skills contribute to the build-up of our SOD. Unexpectedly, perceived SOD in the elderly is not inferior, possibly explained by increased GPS use by the young. Preserved vestibular navigation in cerebellar patients suggests that ascending vestibular-cerebellar projections carry velocity (not position) signals. The abnormalities in the cognitively impaired patients suggest that their vestibulo-spatial navigation is disrupted.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our subjective sense-of-direction is influenced by how good we are at spatial navigation using vestibular cues. Global positioning systems (GPS) may inhibit sense of direction. Increased use of GPS by the young may explain why the elderly's sense of direction is not worse than the young's. Patients with vestibulo-cerebellar dysfunction (downbeat nystagmus syndrome) display normal vestibular navigation, suggesting that ascending vestibulo-cerebellar-cortical pathways carry velocity rather than position signals. Pilot data indicate that dementia disrupts vestibular navigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Athena Zachou
- Neuro-otology Unit, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
- 1st Department of Neurology, Eginition Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Adolfo M Bronstein
- Neuro-otology Unit, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
- 1st Department of Neurology, Eginition Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chepisheva MK. Spatial orientation, postural control and the vestibular system in healthy elderly and Alzheimer's dementia. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15040. [PMID: 37151287 PMCID: PMC10162042 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background While extensive research has been advancing our understanding of the spatial and postural decline in healthy elderly (HE) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), much less is known about how the vestibular system contributes to the spatial and postural processing in these two populations. This is especially relevant during turning movements in the dark, such as while walking in our garden or at home at night, where the vestibular signal becomes central. As the prevention of falls and disorientation are of serious concern for the medical service, more vestibular-driven knowledge is necessary to decrease the burden for HE and AD patients with vestibular disabilities. Overview of the article The review briefly presents the current "non-vestibular based" knowledge (i.e. knowledge based on research that does not mention the "vestibular system" as a contributor or does not investigate its effects) about spatial navigation and postural control during normal healthy ageing and AD pathology. Then, it concentrates on the critical sense of the vestibular system and explores the current expertise about the aspects of spatial orientation and postural control from a vestibular system point of view. The norm is set by first looking at how healthy elderly change with age with respect to their vestibular-guided navigation and balance, followed by the AD patients and the difficulties they experience in maintaining their balance or during navigation. Conclusion Vestibular spatial and vestibular postural deficits present a considerable disadvantage and are felt not only on a physical but also on a psychological level by all those affected. Still, there is a clear need for more (central) vestibular-driven spatial and postural knowledge in healthy and pathological ageing, which can better facilitate our understanding of the aetiology of these dysfunctions. A possible change can start with the more frequent implementation of the "vestibular system examination/rehabilitation/therapy" in the clinic, which can then lead to an improvement of future prognostication and disease outcome for the patients.
Collapse
|
6
|
McLaren R, Chaudhary S, Rashid U, Ravindran S, Taylor D. Reliability of the triangle completion test in the real-world and in virtual reality. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:945953. [PMID: 36034112 PMCID: PMC9411518 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.945953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The triangle completion test has been used to assess egocentric wayfinding for decades, yet there is little information on its reliability. We developed a virtual reality (VR) based test and investigated whether either test of spatial navigation was reliable. Objective To examine test-retest reliability of the real-world and VR triangle completion tests. A secondary objective was to examine the usability of the VR based test. Materials and methods Thirty healthy adults aged 18–45 years were recruited to this block randomized study. Participants completed two sessions of triangle completion tests in the real-world and VR on the same day with a break between sessions. Results In both test versions distance from the endpoint and angle of deviation showed poor test-retest reliability (r < 0.5). Distance traveled had moderate reliability in both the real-world and VR tests (r = 0.55 95% CI [0.23, 0.76]; r = 0.66 95% CI [0.4, 0.83, respectively]). The VR triangle test showed poor correlation with the real-world test. Conclusion The triangle completion test has poor test-retest reliability and demonstrates poor concurrent validity between the real-world and VR. Nevertheless, it was feasible to translate a real-world test of spatial navigation into VR. VR provides opportunities for development of clinically relevant spatial navigation tests in the future.
Collapse
|
7
|
Chari DA, Madhani A, Sharon JD, Lewis RF. Evidence for cognitive impairment in patients with vestibular disorders. J Neurol 2022; 269:5831-5842. [PMID: 35930032 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-022-11289-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Extensive animal research has shown that vestibular damage can be associated with cognitive deficits. More recently, new evidence has emerged linking vestibular disorders to cognitive impairment in humans. Herein, we review contemporary research on the pathophysiology of cognitive-vestibular interactions and discuss its emerging clinical relevance. DATA SOURCES PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases. REVIEW METHODS A systematic literature search was performed with combinations of search terms: "cognition," "cognitive impairment," "chronic fatigue," "brain fog," "spatial navigation," "attention," "memory," "executive function," "processing speed," and "vestibular hypofunction." Relevant articles were considered for inclusion, including basic and clinical studies, case series, and major reviews. CONCLUSIONS Patients with vestibular disorders can demonstrate long-term deficits in both spatial and nonspatial cognitive domains. The underlying mechanism(s) linking the vestibular system to cognitive function is not well characterized, but several neuro-biologic correlates have been identified. Additional screening tools are required to identify individuals at risk for cognitive impairment, and further research is needed to determine whether treatment of vestibular dysfunction has the capacity to improve cognitive function. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Physicians should be aware of emerging data supporting the presence of cognitive deficits in patients with vestibular disorders. Prevention and treatment of long-term cognitive deficits may be possible through screening and rehabilitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Divya A Chari
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Jenks Vestibular Physiology Lab, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Amsal Madhani
- Jenks Vestibular Physiology Lab, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Sharon
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Richard F Lewis
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Jenks Vestibular Physiology Lab, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Anson E, Ehrenburg MR, Simonsick EM, Agrawal Y. Association between vestibular function and rotational spatial orientation perception in older adults. J Vestib Res 2021; 31:469-478. [PMID: 33579887 PMCID: PMC11172369 DOI: 10.3233/ves-201582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spatial orientation is a complex process involving vestibular sensory input and possibly cognitive ability. Previous research demonstrated that rotational spatial orientation was worse for individuals with profound bilateral vestibular dysfunction. OBJECTIVE Determine whether rotational and linear vestibular function were independently associated with large amplitude rotational spatial orientation perception in healthy aging. METHODS Tests of rotational spatial orientation accuracy and vestibular function [vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), ocular and cervical vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (VEMP)] were administered to 272 healthy community-dwelling adults participating in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Using a mixed model multiple linear regression we regressed spatial orientation errors on lateral semicircular canal function, utricular function (ocular VEMP), and saccular function (cervical VEMP) in a single model controlling for rotation size, age, and sex. RESULTS After adjusting for age, and sex, individuals with bilaterally low VOR gain (β= 20.9, p = 0.014) and those with bilaterally absent utricular function (β= 9.32, p = 0.017) made significantly larger spatial orientation errors relative to individuals with normal vestibular function. CONCLUSIONS The current results demonstrate for the first time that either bilateral lateral semicircular canal dysfunction or bilateral utricular dysfunction are associated with worse rotational spatial orientation. We also demonstrated in a healthy aging cohort that increased age also contributes to spatial orientation ability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Anson
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - M R Ehrenburg
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - E M Simonsick
- Longitudinal Studies Section, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Y Agrawal
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wei EX, Anson ER, Resnick SM, Agrawal Y. Psychometric Tests and Spatial Navigation: Data From the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Front Neurol 2020; 11:484. [PMID: 32595588 PMCID: PMC7300262 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial cognition is the process by which individuals interact with their spatial environment. Spatial cognition encompasses the specific skills of spatial memory, spatial orientation, and spatial navigation. Prior studies have shown an association between psychometric tests of spatial ability and self-reported or virtual measures of spatial navigation. In this study, we examined whether psychometric spatial cognitive tests predict performance on a dynamic spatial navigation task that involves movement through an environment. We recruited 151 community-dwelling adult participants [mean (SD) age 69.7 (13.6), range 24.6–93.2] from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA). Spatial navigation ability was assessed using the triangle completion task (TCT), and two quantities, the angle and distance of deviation, were computed. Visuospatial cognitive ability was assessed primarily using the Card Rotations Test. Additional tests of executive function, memory, and attention were also administered. In multiple linear regression analyses adjusting for age, sex, race, and education, cognitive tests of visuospatial ability, executive function, and perceptual motor speed and integration were significantly associated with spatial navigation, as determined by performance on the TCT. These findings suggest that dynamic spatial navigation ability is related to spatial memory, executive function, and motor processing speed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric X Wei
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Eric R Anson
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Rochester Medical Center School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Susan M Resnick
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Yuri Agrawal
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Smith PF. The Growing Evidence for the Importance of the Otoliths in Spatial Memory. Front Neural Circuits 2019; 13:66. [PMID: 31680880 PMCID: PMC6813194 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2019.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies have demonstrated that vestibular sensory input is important for spatial learning and memory. However, it has been unclear what contributions the different parts of the vestibular system - the semi-circular canals and otoliths - make to these processes. The advent of mutant otolith-deficient mice has made it possible to isolate the relative contributions of the otoliths, the utricle and saccule. A number of studies have now indicated that the loss of otolithic function impairs normal spatial memory and also impairs the normal function of head direction cells in the thalamus and place cells in the hippocampus. Epidemiological studies have also provided evidence that spatial memory impairment with aging, may be linked to saccular function. The otoliths may be important in spatial cognition because of their evolutionary age as a sensory detector of orientation and the fact that velocity storage is important to the way that the brain encodes its place in space.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul F. Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brain Health Research Centre, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|