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Naccache L, Munoz-Musat E. A global neuronal workspace model of functional neurological disorders. DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE 2024; 26:1-23. [PMID: 38767966 PMCID: PMC11107854 DOI: 10.1080/19585969.2024.2340131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
We introduce here a general model of Functional Neurological Disorders based on the following hypothesis: a Functional Neurological Disorder could correspond to a consciously initiated voluntary top-down process causing involuntary lasting consequences that are consciously experienced and subjectively interpreted by the patient as involuntary. We develop this central hypothesis according to Global Neuronal Workspace theory of consciousness, that is particularly suited to describe interactions between conscious and non-conscious cognitive processes. We then present a list of predictions defining a research program aimed at empirically testing their validity. Finally, this general model leads us to reinterpret the long-debated links between hypnotic suggestion and functional neurological disorders. Driven by both scientific and therapeutic goals, this theoretical paper aims at bringing closer the psychiatric and neurological worlds of functional neurological disorders with the latest developments of cognitive neuroscience of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Naccache
- Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, Inserm, CNRS, Paris, France- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, AP-HP, Hôpital Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, DMU Neurosciences, Paris, France
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, AP-HP, Hôpital Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, DMU Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Esteban Munoz-Musat
- Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, Inserm, CNRS, Paris, France- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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You Y, Li Y, Yu B, Ying A, Zhou H, Zuo G, Xu J. A study on EEG differences between active counting and focused breathing tasks for more sensitive detection of consciousness. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1341986. [PMID: 38533445 PMCID: PMC10963484 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1341986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction In studies on consciousness detection for patients with disorders of consciousness, difference comparison of EEG responses based on active and passive task modes is difficult to sensitively detect patients' consciousness, while a single potential analysis of EEG responses cannot comprehensively and accurately determine patients' consciousness status. Therefore, in this paper, we designed a new consciousness detection paradigm based on a multi-stage cognitive task that could induce a series of event-related potentials and ERD/ERS phenomena reflecting different consciousness contents. A simple and direct task of paying attention to breathing was designed, and a comprehensive evaluation of consciousness level was conducted using multi-feature joint analysis. Methods We recorded the EEG responses of 20 healthy subjects in three modes and reported the consciousness-related mean event-related potential amplitude, ERD/ERS phenomena, and the classification accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of the EEG responses under different conditions. Results The results showed that the EEG responses of the subjects under different conditions were significantly different in the time domain and time-frequency domain. Compared with the passive mode, the amplitudes of the event-related potentials in the breathing mode were further reduced, and the theta-ERS and alpha-ERD phenomena in the frontal region were further weakened. The breathing mode showed greater distinguishability from the active mode in machine learning-based classification. Discussion By analyzing multiple features of EEG responses in different modes and stimuli, it is expected to achieve more sensitive and accurate consciousness detection. This study can provide a new idea for the design of consciousness detection methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng You
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yahui Li
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Baobao Yu
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ankai Ying
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Huilin Zhou
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
| | - Guokun Zuo
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jialin Xu
- Cixi Biomedical Research Institute, Wenzhou Medical University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- Ningbo Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Ding X, Ji H, Yu W, Xu L, Lin Y, Sun Y. Dissociation between temporal attention and Consciousness: Unconscious temporal cue induces temporal expectation effect. Conscious Cogn 2024; 119:103670. [PMID: 38422759 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2024.103670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
The debate over the independence of attention and consciousness is ongoing. Prior studies have established that invisible spatial cues can direct attention. However, our exploration extends beyond spatial dimensions to temporal information as a potent guide for attention. A intriguing question arises: Can unconscious temporal cues trigger attentional orienting? To investigate, we employed a modified reaction-time task in Experiments 1 and 2, using Gabor stimuli or human facial stimuli as temporal cues rendered invisible through continuous flash suppression. We aimed to uncover temporal expectation effects (TE effects) without conscious awareness. Moreover, Experiments 3 and 4 probed the boundaries of this unconscious processing, assessing whether conscious temporal cues could modulate TE effects. Our results confirm that invisible temporal cues can induce TE effects, and these effects can be overridden by conscious temporal cues. This dissociation between temporal attention and consciousness provide a new perspective on our understanding of their relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Ding
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Huichao Ji
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China; Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, USA
| | - Wenhao Yu
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Luzi Xu
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Youting Lin
- Department of Neurology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yanliang Sun
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, People's Republic of China.
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Sangare A, Quirins M, Marois C, Valente M, Weiss N, Perez P, Ben Salah A, Munoz-Musat E, Demeret S, Rohaut B, Sitt JD, Eymond C, Naccache L. Pupil dilation response elicited by violations of auditory regularities is a promising but challenging approach to probe consciousness at the bedside. Sci Rep 2023; 13:20331. [PMID: 37989756 PMCID: PMC10663629 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-47806-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Pupil dilation response (PDR) has been proposed as a physiological marker of conscious access to a stimulus or its attributes, such as novelty. In a previous study on healthy volunteers, we adapted the auditory "local global" paradigm and showed that violations of global regularity elicited a PDR. Notably without instructions, this global effect was present only in participants who could consciously report violations of global regularities. In the present study, we used a similar approach in 24 non-communicating patients affected with a Disorder of Consciousness (DoC) and compared PDR to ERPs regarding diagnostic and prognostic performance. At the group level, global effect could not be detected in DoC patients. At the individual level, the only patient with a PDR global effect was in a MCS and recovered consciousness at 6 months. Contrasting the most regular trials to the most irregular ones improved PDR's diagnostic and prognostic power in DoC patients. Pupillometry is a promising tool but requires several methodological improvements to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio and make it more robust for probing consciousness and cognition in DoC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aude Sangare
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Charles Foix, Département de Neurophysiologie, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France.
| | - Marion Quirins
- Département de Neurologie, Hôpital Fondation Adolphe de Rothschild, Paris, France
| | - Clémence Marois
- AP-HP.Sorbonne Université, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Département de Neurologie, Unité de Médecine Intensive et Réanimation à Orientation Neurologique & Groupe de Recherche Clinique en REanimation et Soins Intensifs du Patient en Insuffisance Respiratoire aiguE (GRC-RESPIRE) Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Valente
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Charles Foix, Département de Neurophysiologie, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Weiss
- AP-HP.Sorbonne Université, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Département de Neurologie, Unité de Médecine Intensive et Réanimation à Orientation Neurologique & Groupe de Recherche Clinique en REanimation et Soins Intensifs du Patient en Insuffisance Respiratoire aiguE (GRC-RESPIRE) Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Brain Liver Pitié-Salpêtrière (BLIPS) Study Group, INSERM UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine (CRSA), Maladies Métaboliques, Biliaires et Fibro-Inflammatoire du Foie & Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), Paris, France
| | - Pauline Perez
- Anesthesia and Intensive Care Unit, Lyon Medical Intensive Care Unit, Edouard, Herriot Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69437, Lyon, France
| | - Amina Ben Salah
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Charles Foix, Département de Neurophysiologie, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Esteban Munoz-Musat
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Sophie Demeret
- AP-HP.Sorbonne Université, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Département de Neurologie, Unité de Médecine Intensive et Réanimation à Orientation Neurologique & Groupe de Recherche Clinique en REanimation et Soins Intensifs du Patient en Insuffisance Respiratoire aiguE (GRC-RESPIRE) Sorbonne Université, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Rohaut
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Charles Foix, Département de Neurophysiologie, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Jacobo D Sitt
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Cecile Eymond
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Lionel Naccache
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Charles Foix, Département de Neurophysiologie, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
- INSERM U 1127, PICNIC, Lab, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, ICM, 75013, Paris, France.
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Liu J, Bayle DJ, Spagna A, Sitt JD, Bourgeois A, Lehongre K, Fernandez-Vidal S, Adam C, Lambrecq V, Navarro V, Seidel Malkinson T, Bartolomeo P. Fronto-parietal networks shape human conscious report through attention gain and reorienting. Commun Biol 2023; 6:730. [PMID: 37454150 PMCID: PMC10349830 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05108-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
How do attention and consciousness interact in the human brain? Rival theories of consciousness disagree on the role of fronto-parietal attentional networks in conscious perception. We recorded neural activity from 727 intracerebral contacts in 13 epileptic patients, while they detected near-threshold targets preceded by attentional cues. Clustering revealed three neural patterns: first, attention-enhanced conscious report accompanied sustained right-hemisphere fronto-temporal activity in networks connected by the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) II-III, and late accumulation of activity (>300 ms post-target) in bilateral dorso-prefrontal and right-hemisphere orbitofrontal cortex (SLF I-III). Second, attentional reorienting affected conscious report through early, sustained activity in a right-hemisphere network (SLF III). Third, conscious report accompanied left-hemisphere dorsolateral-prefrontal activity. Task modeling with recurrent neural networks revealed multiple clusters matching the identified brain clusters, elucidating the causal relationship between clusters in conscious perception of near-threshold targets. Thus, distinct, hemisphere-asymmetric fronto-parietal networks support attentional gain and reorienting in shaping human conscious experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghao Liu
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France.
- Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France.
| | | | - Alfredo Spagna
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Jacobo D Sitt
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Alexia Bourgeois
- Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Katia Lehongre
- CENIR - Centre de Neuro-Imagerie de Recherche, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Sara Fernandez-Vidal
- CENIR - Centre de Neuro-Imagerie de Recherche, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Claude Adam
- Epilepsy Unit, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Virginie Lambrecq
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
- Epilepsy Unit, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, 75013, Paris, France
- Clinical Neurophysiology Department, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Navarro
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
- Epilepsy Unit, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, 75013, Paris, France
- Clinical Neurophysiology Department, AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Tal Seidel Malkinson
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France.
- CNRS, CRAN, Université de Lorraine, F-54000, Nancy, France.
| | - Paolo Bartolomeo
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France.
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Hermann B, Salah AB, Perlbarg V, Valente M, Pyatigorskaya N, Habert MO, Raimondo F, Stender J, Galanaud D, Kas A, Puybasset L, Perez P, Sitt JD, Rohaut B, Naccache L. Habituation of auditory startle reflex is a new sign of minimally conscious state. Brain 2020; 143:2154-2172. [PMID: 32582938 PMCID: PMC7364741 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awaa159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurological examination of non-communicating patients relies on a few decisive items that enable the crucial distinction between vegetative state (VS)-also coined unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS)-and minimally conscious state. Over the past 10 years, this distinction has proven its diagnostic value as well as its important prognostic value on consciousness recovery. However, clinicians are currently limited by three factors: (i) the current behavioural repertoire of minimally conscious state items is limited and restricted to a few cognitive domains in the goldstandard revised version of the Coma Recovery Scale; (ii) a proportion of ∼15-20% clinically VS/UWS patients are actually in a richer state than VS/UWS as evidenced by functional brain imaging; and (iii) the neurophysiological and cognitive interpretation of each minimally conscious state item is still unclear and debated. In the current study we demonstrate that habituation of the auditory startle reflex (hASR) tested at bedside constitutes a novel, simple and powerful behavioural sign that can accurately distinguish minimally conscious state from VS/UWS. In addition to enlarging the minimally conscious state items repertoire, and therefore decreasing the low sensitivity of current behavioural measures, we also provide an original and rigorous description of the neurophysiological basis of hASR through a combination of functional (high density EEG and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET imaging) and structural (diffusion tensor imaging MRI) measures. We show that preservation of hASR is associated with the functional and structural integrity of a brain-scale fronto-parietal network, including prefrontal regions related to control of action and inhibition, and meso-parietal areas associated with minimally conscious and conscious states. Lastly, we show that hASR predicts 6-month improvement of consciousness. Taken together, our results show that hASR is a cortically-mediated behaviour, and suggest that it could be a new clinical item to clearly and accurately identify non-communicating patients who are in the minimally conscious state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Hermann
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
| | - Amina Ben Salah
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Perlbarg
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d’Imagerie Biomédicale, LIB, F-75006, Paris, France
- BrainTale SAS, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Valente
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Nadya Pyatigorskaya
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
- Department of Neuroradiology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Odile Habert
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d’Imagerie Biomédicale, LIB, F-75006, Paris, France
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Federico Raimondo
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Coma Science Group, GIGA Consciousness, University of Liège, Belgium
- Centre du Cerveau, University Hospital of Liège, Belgium
| | - Johan Stender
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Damien Galanaud
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
- Department of Neuroradiology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Aurélie Kas
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d’Imagerie Biomédicale, LIB, F-75006, Paris, France
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Louis Puybasset
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d’Imagerie Biomédicale, LIB, F-75006, Paris, France
- Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, Multidisciplinary Intensive Care Unit, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Pauline Perez
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Jacobo D Sitt
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Rohaut
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Lionel Naccache
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière - ICM, Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
- Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, Paris, France
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, F-75013, Paris, France
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