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Manjunath M, Ravindran F, Sharma S, Siddiqua H, Raghavan SC, Choudhary B. Disarib, a Specific BCL2 Inhibitor, Induces Apoptosis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells and Impedes Tumour Progression in Xenografts by Altering Mitochondria-Associated Processes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6485. [PMID: 38928195 PMCID: PMC11203414 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Targeted cancer therapy aims to disrupt the functions of proteins that regulate cancer progression, mainly by using small molecule inhibitors (SMIs). SMIs exert their effect by modulating signalling pathways, organelle integrity, chromatin components, and several biosynthetic processes essential for cell division and survival. Antiapoptotic protein BCL2 is highly upregulated in many cancers compared with normal cells, making it an ideal target for cancer therapy. Around 75% of primary breast cancers overexpress BCL2, providing an opportunity to explore BCL2 inhibitors as a therapeutic option. Disarib is an SMI that has been developed as a selective BCL2 inhibitor. Disarib works by disrupting BCL2-BAK interaction and activating intrinsic apoptotic pathways in leukemic cells while sparing normal cells. We investigated the effects of Disarib, a BCL2 specific inhibitor, on breast cancer cells and xenografts. Cytotoxicity and fluorometric assays revealed that Disarib induced cell death by increasing reactive oxygen species and activating intrinsic apoptotic pathways in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer cells (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468). Disarib also affected the colony-forming properties of these cells. MDA-MB-231- and MDA-MB-468-derived xenografts showed a significant reduction in tumours upon Disarib treatment. Through the transcriptomics approach, we also explored the influence of BCL2 inhibitors on energy metabolism, mitochondrial dynamics, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Mitochondrial dynamics and glucose metabolism mainly regulate energy metabolism. The change in energetics regulates tumour growth through epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and angiogenesis. RNA sequencing (RNAseq) analysis revealed that BCL2 inhibitors ABT-199 and Disarib maintain Oxphos levels in MDA-MB-231. However, key glycolytic genes were significantly downregulated. Mitochondrial fission genes were seen to be downregulated both in RNAseq data and semi quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRTPCR) in Disarib-treated TNBC cells and xenografts. Lastly, Disarib inhibited wound healing and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. This study showed that Disarib disrupts mitochondrial function, activates the intrinsic apoptotic pathway in breast cancer, and inhibits epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition both in vitro and in vivo. These findings highlight Disarib's potential as a multifaceted therapeutic strategy for patients with Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghana Manjunath
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Electronic City Phase 1, Bengaluru 560100, India
| | - Febina Ravindran
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Electronic City Phase 1, Bengaluru 560100, India
| | - Shivangi Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Electronic City Phase 1, Bengaluru 560100, India
- Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India; (H.S.); (S.C.R.)
| | - Humaira Siddiqua
- Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India; (H.S.); (S.C.R.)
| | | | - Bibha Choudhary
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Electronic City Phase 1, Bengaluru 560100, India
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2
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Huang T, Bao H, Meng YH, Zhu JL, Chu XD, Chu XL, Pan JH. Tumour budding is a novel marker in breast cancer: the clinical application and future prospects. Ann Med 2022; 54:1303-1312. [PMID: 35535687 PMCID: PMC9103277 DOI: 10.1080/07853890.2022.2070272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is a group of markedly heterogeneous tumours. There are many subtypes with different biological behaviours and clinicopathological characteristics, leading to significantly different prognosis. Despite significant advances in the treatment of BC, early metastatic is a critical factor for poor prognosis in BC patients. Tumour budding (TB) is considered as the first step process of tumour metastasis and is related to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). TB has been observed in a variety of cancers, such as colorectal and gastric cancer, and had been considered as a distinct clinicopathological characteristics for early metastasis. However, TB evaluation standards and clinical application are not uniform in BC, as well as its molecular mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we reviewed the interpretation criteria, mechanism, clinicopathological characteristics and clinical application prospects of TB in BC. Key messagesCurrently, tumour budding is a poor prognosis for various solid tumours, also in breast cancer.Tumour budding is based on epithelial-mesenchymal transition and tumour microenvironment factors and is presumed to be an early step in the metastatic process.Breast cancer tumour budding still needs multi-centre experiments. We summarize the current research on breast cancer tumour budding, analyse the method of discriminating breast cancer tumour budding and explore the prognostic role and mechanism in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Huang
- Department of Clinical Pathology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui Bao
- Department of Plastic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu-Hua Meng
- Department of Clinical Pathology, the First People's Hospital of Shunde, Foshan, China
| | - Jian-Lin Zhu
- Department of General Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Dong Chu
- Department of General Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Li Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Dampness Syndrome of Chinese Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key laboratory of Chinese Medicine for Prevention and Treatment of Refractory Chronic Diseases, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing-Hua Pan
- Department of General Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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3
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Pantazi P, Carollo E, Carter DRF, Brooks SA. A practical toolkit to study aspects of the metastatic cascade in vitro. Acta Histochem 2020; 122:151654. [PMID: 33157489 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2020.151654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
While metastasis - the spread of cancer from the primary location to distant sites in the body - remains the principle cause of cancer death, it is incompletely understood. It is a complex process, requiring the metastatically successful cancer cell to negotiate a formidable series of interconnected steps, which are described in this paper. For each step, we review the range of in vitro assays that may be used to study them. We also provide a range of detailed, step-by-step protocols that can be undertaken in most modestly-equipped laboratories, including methods for converting qualitative observations into quantitative data for analysis. Assays include: (1) a gelatin degradation assay to study the ability of endothelial cells to degrade extracellular matrix during tumour angiogenesis; (2) the morphological characterisation of cells undergoing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as they acquire motility; (3) a 'scratch' or 'wound-healing' assay to study cancer cell migration; (4) a transwell assay to study cancer cell invasion through extracellular matrix; and (5) a static adhesion assay to examine cancer cell interactions with, and adhesion to, endothelial monolayers. This toolkit of protocols will enable researchers who are interested in metastasis to begin to focus on defined aspects of the process. It is only by further understanding this complex, fascinating and clinically relevant series of events that we may ultimately devise ways of better treating, or even preventing, cancer metastasis. The assays may also be of more broad interest to researchers interested in studying aspects of cellular behaviour in relation to other developmental and disease processes.
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Pasupalak A, Yan-Wei L, Ni R, Pica Ciamarra M. Hexatic phase in a model of active biological tissues. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:3914-3920. [PMID: 32270837 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm00109k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In many biological processes, such as wound healing, cell tissues undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, which is a transition from a more rigid to a more fluid state. Here, we investigate the solid/fluid transition of cell tissues within the framework of the self-propelled Voronoi model, which accounts for the deformability of the cells, for their many-body interactions, and for their polarized motility. The transition is controlled by two parameters, respectively accounting for the strength of the self-propelling force of the cells, and for the mechanical rigidity of the cells. We find the melting transition to occur via a continuous solid-hexatic transition followed by a continuous hexatic-liquid transition, as in the Kosterlitz, Thouless, Halperin, Nelson, and Young scenario. This finding indicates that the hexatic phase may have an unexpected biological relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshuman Pasupalak
- School of Physical and Mathematical Science, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
| | - Li Yan-Wei
- School of Physical and Mathematical Science, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
| | - Ran Ni
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
| | - Massimo Pica Ciamarra
- School of Physical and Mathematical Science, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. and CNR-SPIN, Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, Università di Napoli Federico II, I-80126, Napoli, Italy
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5
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Tekpli X, Lien T, Røssevold AH, Nebdal D, Borgen E, Ohnstad HO, Kyte JA, Vallon-Christersson J, Fongaard M, Due EU, Svartdal LG, Sveli MAT, Garred Ø, Frigessi A, Sahlberg KK, Sørlie T, Russnes HG, Naume B, Kristensen VN. An independent poor-prognosis subtype of breast cancer defined by a distinct tumor immune microenvironment. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5499. [PMID: 31796750 PMCID: PMC6890706 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
How mixtures of immune cells associate with cancer cell phenotype and affect pathogenesis is still unclear. In 15 breast cancer gene expression datasets, we invariably identify three clusters of patients with gradual levels of immune infiltration. The intermediate immune infiltration cluster (Cluster B) is associated with a worse prognosis independently of known clinicopathological features. Furthermore, immune clusters are associated with response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. In silico dissection of the immune contexture of the clusters identified Cluster A as immune cold, Cluster C as immune hot while Cluster B has a pro-tumorigenic immune infiltration. Through phenotypical analysis, we find epithelial mesenchymal transition and proliferation associated with the immune clusters and mutually exclusive in breast cancers. Here, we describe immune clusters which improve the prognostic accuracy of immune contexture in breast cancer. Our discovery of a novel independent prognostic factor in breast cancer highlights a correlation between tumor phenotype and immune contexture. In breast cancer, the immune infiltration of the tumour associates with clinical outcome. Here, the authors infer immune context based on gene expression data and identify a new independent subtype linked to pro-tumorigenic immune infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Tekpli
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tonje Lien
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Hagen Røssevold
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Daniel Nebdal
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elin Borgen
- Department of Pathology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hege Oma Ohnstad
- Department of Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jon Amund Kyte
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Johan Vallon-Christersson
- Division of Oncology and Pathology, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Scheelegatan 2, Medicon Village, 22185, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marie Fongaard
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eldri Undlien Due
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lisa Gregusson Svartdal
- Department of Pathology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - My Anh Tu Sveli
- Department of Pathology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øystein Garred
- Department of Pathology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Arnoldo Frigessi
- Department of Biostatistics, Oslo Centre for Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of Oslo and Research Support Services, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristine Kleivi Sahlberg
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Research, Vestre Viken Hospital Trust, Drammen, Norway
| | - Therese Sørlie
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Centre for Cancer Biomarkers CCBIO, Bergen, Norway
| | - Hege G Russnes
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Pathology, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Bjørn Naume
- Department of Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vessela N Kristensen
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway. .,Centre for Cancer Biomarkers CCBIO, Bergen, Norway. .,Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, Division of Medicine, Akershus University Hospital, Lørenskog, Norway.
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6
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A modeling strategy for cell dynamic morphology classification based on local deformation patterns. Biomed Signal Process Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2019.101587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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7
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Schmutz CF, Hatton TD, Blomfield MP, Chandler BD, Benedick TC, Hansen MDH. A cellular automaton based on plasma membrane turnover accurately recapitulates cell mechanics during epithelial scattering. J Theor Biol 2017. [PMID: 28648562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial cells can be triggered to actively detach from epithelial tissues and become solitary, migratory and invasive. This process occurs repeatedly in development, where it is termed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and can be recapitulated as epithelial scattering in cell culture models. Detachment of cell-cell junctions involves changes in contractile forces, actin cytoskeletal organization, changes in cell-substrate adhesion properties, surface presentation of cell-cell adhesion molecules, and gene expression. That these cellular processes affect each other and share molecular components creates difficulties in generating hypotheses and designing experiments to understand the mechanics of epithelial scattering. Computational modeling is proving a powerful too in such instances. Here we develop a cellular automaton to reveal insights into how cells rupture epithelial cell-cell junctions during scattering. The model is optimized for realistic and stable recapitulation of behavior of single cells, then for realistic simulation of multiple cells forming epithelial colonies. With a workable model of epithelial cell behavior, we then alter model parameters and assess whether we can realistically mimic epithelial scattering. Adjusting model parameters to recapitulate epithelial scattering reveals that induction of cell migration is the major driver of epithelial scattering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian F Schmutz
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Trey D Hatton
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Michael P Blomfield
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Benjamin D Chandler
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Trent C Benedick
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Marc D H Hansen
- Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, 4005 LSB, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
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8
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Domínguez C, Heras J, Pascual V. IJ-OpenCV: Combining ImageJ and OpenCV for processing images in biomedicine. Comput Biol Med 2017; 84:189-194. [PMID: 28390286 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE The effective processing of biomedical images usually requires the interoperability of diverse software tools that have different aims but are complementary. The goal of this work is to develop a bridge to connect two of those tools: ImageJ, a program for image analysis in life sciences, and OpenCV, a computer vision and machine learning library. METHODS Based on a thorough analysis of ImageJ and OpenCV, we detected the features of these systems that could be enhanced, and developed a library to combine both tools, taking advantage of the strengths of each system. The library was implemented on top of the SciJava converter framework. We also provide a methodology to use this library. RESULTS We have developed the publicly available library IJ-OpenCV that can be employed to create applications combining features from both ImageJ and OpenCV. From the perspective of ImageJ developers, they can use IJ-OpenCV to easily create plugins that use any functionality provided by the OpenCV library and explore different alternatives. From the perspective of OpenCV developers, this library provides a link to the ImageJ graphical user interface and all its features to handle regions of interest. CONCLUSIONS The IJ-OpenCV library bridges the gap between ImageJ and OpenCV, allowing the connection and the cooperation of these two systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Domínguez
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain
| | - Jónathan Heras
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain.
| | - Vico Pascual
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain.
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9
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EMT in Breast Carcinoma-A Review. J Clin Med 2016; 5:jcm5070065. [PMID: 27429011 PMCID: PMC4961996 DOI: 10.3390/jcm5070065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular program that is involved in embryonic development; wound healing, but also in tumorigenesis. Breast carcinoma (BC) is the most common cancer in women worldwide, and the majority of deaths (90%) are caused by invasion and metastasis. The EMT plays an important role in invasion and subsequent metastasis. Several distinct biological events integrate a cascade that leads not only to a change from an epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype, but allows for detachment, migration, invasion and ultimately, colonization of a second site. Understanding the biological intricacies of the EMT may provide important insights that lead to the development of therapeutic targets in pre-invasive and invasive breast cancer, and could be used as biomarkers identifying tumor subsets with greater chances of recurrence, metastasis and therapeutic resistance leading to death.
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10
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Hemodynamics driven cardiac valve morphogenesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2015; 1863:1760-6. [PMID: 26608609 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical forces are instrumental to cardiovascular development and physiology. The heart beats approximately 2.6 billion times in a human lifetime and heart valves ensure that these contractions result in an efficient, unidirectional flow of the blood. Composed of endocardial cells (EdCs) and extracellular matrix (ECM), cardiac valves are among the most mechanically challenged structures of the body both during and after their development. Understanding how hemodynamic forces modulate cardiovascular function and morphogenesis is key to unraveling the relationship between normal and pathological cardiovascular development and physiology. Most valve diseases have their origins in embryogenesis, either as signs of abnormal developmental processes or the aberrant re-expression of fetal gene programs normally quiescent in adulthood. Here we review recent discoveries in the mechanobiology of cardiac valve development and introduce the latest technologies being developed in the zebrafish, including live cell imaging and optical technologies, as well as modeling approaches that are currently transforming this field. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cardiomyocyte Biology: Integration of Developmental and Environmental Cues in the Heart edited by Marcus Schaub and Hughes Abriel.
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Schleich JM, Abdulla T, Summers R, Houyel L. An overview of cardiac morphogenesis. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2013; 106:612-23. [PMID: 24138816 DOI: 10.1016/j.acvd.2013.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Accurate knowledge of normal cardiac development is essential for properly understanding the morphogenesis of congenital cardiac malformations that represent the most common congenital anomaly in newborns. The heart is the first organ to function during embryonic development and is fully formed at 8 weeks of gestation. Recent studies stemming from molecular genetics have allowed specification of the role of cellular precursors in the field of heart development. In this article we review the different steps of heart development, focusing on the processes of alignment and septation. We also show, as often as possible, the links between abnormalities of cardiac development and the main congenital heart defects. The development of animal models has permitted the unraveling of many mechanisms that potentially lead to cardiac malformations. A next step towards a better knowledge of cardiac development could be multiscale cardiac modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Schleich
- Service de Cardiologie et de Maladies Vasculaires, Hôpital de Pontchaillou, 35033 Rennes cedex 09, France; INSERM U 1099, Université de Rennes, LTSI, 35042 Rennes, France.
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