1
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Hosseini F, Asadi F, Rabiei R, Kiani F, Harari RE. Applications of artificial intelligence in diagnosis of uncommon cystoid macular edema using optical coherence tomography imaging: A systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol 2024; 69:937-944. [PMID: 38942125 DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2024.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
Cystoid macular edema (CME) is a sight-threatening condition often associated with inflammatory and diabetic diseases. Early detection is crucial to prevent irreversible vision loss. Artificial intelligence (AI) has shown promise in automating CME diagnosis through optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging, but its utility needs critical evaluation. This systematic review assesses the application of AI to diagnosis CME, specifically focusing on disorders like postoperative CME (Irvine Gass syndrome) and retinitis pigmentosa without obvious vasculopathy, using OCT imaging. A comprehensive search was conducted across 6 databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Wiley, ScienceDirect, and IEEE) from 2018 to November, 2023. Twenty-three articles met the inclusion criteria and were selected for in-depth analysis. We evaluate AI's role in CME diagnosis and its performance in "detection", "classification", and "segmentation" of OCT retinal images. We found that convolutional neural network (CNN)-based methods consistently outperformed other machine learning techniques, achieving an average accuracy of over 96 % in detecting and identifying CME from OCT images. Despite certain limitations such as dataset size and ethical concerns, the synergy between AI and OCT, particularly through CNNs, holds promise for significantly advancing CME diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhang Hosseini
- Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farkhondeh Asadi
- Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Reza Rabiei
- Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fatemeh Kiani
- Department of Health Information Technology and Management, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Rayan Ebnali Harari
- STRATUS Center for Medical Simulation, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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2
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Toto L, Romano A, Pavan M, Degl'Innocenti D, Olivotto V, Formenti F, Viggiano P, Midena E, Mastropasqua R. A deep learning approach to hard exudates detection and disorganization of retinal inner layers identification on OCT images. Sci Rep 2024; 14:16652. [PMID: 39030181 PMCID: PMC11271624 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-63844-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to detect Hard Exudates (HE) and classify Disorganization of Retinal Inner Layers (DRIL) implementing a Deep Learning (DL) system on optical coherence tomography (OCT) images of eyes with diabetic macular edema (DME). We collected a dataset composed of 442 OCT images on which we annotated 6847 HE and the presence of DRIL. A complex operational pipeline was defined to implement data cleaning and image transformations, and train two DL models. The state-of-the-art neural network architectures (Yolov7, ConvNeXt, RegNetX) and advanced techniques were exploited to aggregate the results (Ensemble learning, Edge detection) and obtain a final model. The DL approach reached good performance in detecting HE and classifying DRIL. Regarding HE detection the model got an AP@0.5 score equal to 34.4% with Precision of 48.7% and Recall of 43.1%; while for DRIL classification an Accuracy of 91.1% with Sensitivity and Specificity both of 91.1% and AUC and AUPR values equal to 91% were obtained. The P-value was lower than 0.05 and the Kappa coefficient was 0.82. The DL models proved to be able to identify HE and DRIL in eyes with DME with a very good accuracy and all the metrics calculated confirmed the system performance. Our DL approach demonstrated to be a good candidate as a supporting tool for ophthalmologists in OCT images analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Toto
- Ophthalmology Clinic, Department of Medicine and Ageing Science, University "G. D'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via Dei Vestini Snc, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Anna Romano
- Ophthalmology Clinic, Department of Medicine and Ageing Science, University "G. D'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via Dei Vestini Snc, 66100, Chieti, Italy.
| | - Marco Pavan
- Datamantix S.R.L. Artificial Intelligence Company, Via Paolo Sarpi, 14/15, 33100, Udine, Italy
| | - Dante Degl'Innocenti
- Datamantix S.R.L. Artificial Intelligence Company, Via Paolo Sarpi, 14/15, 33100, Udine, Italy
| | - Valentina Olivotto
- Datamantix S.R.L. Artificial Intelligence Company, Via Paolo Sarpi, 14/15, 33100, Udine, Italy
| | - Federico Formenti
- Ophthalmology Clinic, Department of Medicine and Ageing Science, University "G. D'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via Dei Vestini Snc, 66100, Chieti, Italy
| | - Pasquale Viggiano
- Ophthalmology Clinic, Department of Translational Biomedicine Neuroscience, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy
| | - Edoardo Midena
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Padova, 35128, Padova, Italy
- IRCCS- Fondazione Bietti, 00198, Roma, Italy
| | - Rodolfo Mastropasqua
- Ophthalmology Clinic, Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Science, "G. D'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Via Dei Vestini Snc, 66100, Chieti, Italy
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3
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Zeng Y, Gao S, Li Y, Marangoni D, De Silva T, Wong WT, Chew EY, Sun X, Li T, Sieving PA, Qian H. OCT Intensity of the Region between Outer Retina Band 2 and Band 3 as a Biomarker for Retinal Degeneration and Therapy. Bioengineering (Basel) 2024; 11:449. [PMID: 38790316 PMCID: PMC11118669 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering11050449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is widely used to probe retinal structure and function. This study investigated the outer retina band (ORB) pattern and reflective intensity for the region between bands 2 and 3 (Dip) in three mouse models of inherited retinal degeneration (Rs1KO, TTLL5KO, RPE65KO) and in human AMD patients from the A2A database. OCT images were manually graded, and reflectivity signals were used to calculate the Dip ratio. Qualitative analyses demonstrated the progressive merging band 2 and band 3 in all three mouse models, leading to a reduction in the Dip ratio compared to wildtype (WT) controls. Gene replacement therapy in Rs1KO mice reverted the ORB pattern to one resembling WT and increased the Dip ratio. The degree of anatomical rescue in these mice was highly correlated with level of transgenic RS1 expression and with the restoration of ERG b-wave amplitudes. While the inner retinal cavity was significantly enlarged in dark-adapted Rs1KO mice, the Dip ratio was not altered. A reduction of the Dip ratio was also detected in AMD patients compared with healthy controls and was also positively correlated with AMD severity on the AMD score. We propose that the ORB and Dip ratio can be used as non-invasive early biomarkers for retina health, which can be used to probe therapeutic gene expression and to evaluate the effectiveness of therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zeng
- Visual Function Core, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Z.); (S.G.); (Y.L.)
| | - Shasha Gao
- Visual Function Core, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Z.); (S.G.); (Y.L.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Yichao Li
- Visual Function Core, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Z.); (S.G.); (Y.L.)
| | - Dario Marangoni
- Section for Translational Research in Retinal and Macular Degeneration, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA;
| | - Tharindu De Silva
- Unit on Clinical Investigation of Retinal Disease, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Wai T. Wong
- Section on Neuron-Glia Interactions in Retinal Disease, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA;
| | - Emily Y. Chew
- Clinical Trials Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xun Sun
- Neurobiology Neurodegeneration & Repair Laboratory (N-NRL), National Eye Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA (T.L.)
| | - Tiansen Li
- Neurobiology Neurodegeneration & Repair Laboratory (N-NRL), National Eye Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA (T.L.)
| | | | - Haohua Qian
- Visual Function Core, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Z.); (S.G.); (Y.L.)
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4
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Leandro I, Lorenzo B, Aleksandar M, Dario M, Rosa G, Agostino A, Daniele T. OCT-based deep-learning models for the identification of retinal key signs. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14628. [PMID: 37670066 PMCID: PMC10480174 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41362-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A new system based on binary Deep Learning (DL) convolutional neural networks has been developed to recognize specific retinal abnormality signs on Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) images useful for clinical practice. Images from the local hospital database were retrospectively selected from 2017 to 2022. Images were labeled by two retinal specialists and included central fovea cross-section OCTs. Nine models were developed using the Visual Geometry Group 16 architecture to distinguish healthy versus abnormal retinas and to identify eight different retinal abnormality signs. A total of 21,500 OCT images were screened, and 10,770 central fovea cross-section OCTs were included in the study. The system achieved high accuracy in identifying healthy retinas and specific pathological signs, ranging from 93 to 99%. Accurately detecting abnormal retinal signs from OCT images is crucial for patient care. This study aimed to identify specific signs related to retinal pathologies, aiding ophthalmologists in diagnosis. The high-accuracy system identified healthy retinas and pathological signs, making it a useful diagnostic aid. Labelled OCT images remain a challenge, but our approach reduces dataset creation time and shows DL models' potential to improve ocular pathology diagnosis and clinical decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inferrera Leandro
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, Eye Clinic, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Trieste, Piazza Dell'Ospitale 1, 34125, Trieste, Italy.
| | - Borsatti Lorenzo
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, Eye Clinic, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Trieste, Piazza Dell'Ospitale 1, 34125, Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Marangoni Dario
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, Eye Clinic, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Trieste, Piazza Dell'Ospitale 1, 34125, Trieste, Italy
| | - Giglio Rosa
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, Eye Clinic, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Trieste, Piazza Dell'Ospitale 1, 34125, Trieste, Italy
| | - Accardo Agostino
- Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Tognetto Daniele
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, Eye Clinic, Ophthalmology Clinic, University of Trieste, Piazza Dell'Ospitale 1, 34125, Trieste, Italy
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5
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Mittal P, Bhatnagar C. Effectual accuracy of OCT image retinal segmentation with the aid of speckle noise reduction and boundary edge detection strategy. J Microsc 2023; 289:164-179. [PMID: 36373509 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has shown to be a valuable imaging tool in the field of ophthalmology, and it is becoming increasingly relevant in the field of neurology. Several OCT image segmentation methods have been developed previously to segment retinal images, however sophisticated speckle noises with low-intensity restrictions, complex retinal tissues, and inaccurate retinal layer structure remain a challenge to perform effective retinal segmentation. Hence, in this research, complicated speckle noises are removed by using a novel far-flung ratio algorithm in which preprocessing has been done to treat the speckle noise thereby highly decreasing the speckle noise through new similarity and statistical measures. Additionally, a novel haphazard walk and inter-frame flattening algorithms have been presented to tackle the weak object boundaries in OCT images. These algorithms are effective at detecting edges and estimating minimal weighted paths to better diverge, which reduces the time complexity. In addition, the segmentation of OCT images is made simpler by using a novel N-ret layer segmentation approach that executes simultaneous segmentation of various surfaces, ensures unambiguous segmentation across neighbouring layers, and improves segmentation accuracy by using two grey scale values to construct data. Consequently, the novel work outperformed the OCT image segmentation with 98.5% of accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Mittal
- Computer Engineering & Applications, GLA University, Mathura, UP, India
| | - Charul Bhatnagar
- Computer Engineering & Applications, GLA University, Mathura, UP, India
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6
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López-Varela E, de Moura J, Novo J, Fernández-Vigo JI, Moreno-Morillo FJ, Ortega M. Fully automatic segmentation and monitoring of choriocapillaris flow voids in OCTA images. Comput Med Imaging Graph 2023; 104:102172. [PMID: 36630796 DOI: 10.1016/j.compmedimag.2022.102172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is a non-invasive ophthalmic imaging modality that is widely used in clinical practice. Recent technological advances in OCTA allow imaging of blood flow deeper than the retinal layers, at the level of the choriocapillaris (CC), where a granular image is obtained showing a pattern of bright areas, representing blood flow, and a pattern of small dark regions, called flow voids (FVs). Several clinical studies have reported a close correlation between abnormal FVs distribution and multiple diseases, so quantifying changes in FVs distribution in CC has become an area of interest for many clinicians. However, CC OCTA images present very complex features that make it difficult to correctly compare FVs during the monitoring of a patient. In this work, we propose fully automatic approaches for the segmentation and monitoring of FVs in CC OCTA images. First, a baseline approach, in which a fully automatic segmentation methodology based on local contrast enhancement and global thresholding is proposed to segment FVs and measure changes in their distribution in a straightforward manner. Second, a robust approach in which, prior to the use of our segmentation methodology, an unsupervised trained neural network is used to perform a deformable registration that aligns inconsistencies between images acquired at different time instants. The proposed approaches were tested with CC OCTA images collected during a clinical study on the response to photodynamic therapy in patients affected by chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC), demonstrating their clinical utility. The results showed that both approaches are accurate and robust, surpassing the state of the art, therefore improving the efficacy of FVs as a biomarker to monitor the patient treatments. This gives great potential for the clinical use of our methods, with the possibility of extending their use to other pathologies or treatments associated with this type of imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio López-Varela
- VARPA Group, Biomedical Research Institute of A Coruña (INIBIC), University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain; CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain.
| | - Joaquim de Moura
- VARPA Group, Biomedical Research Institute of A Coruña (INIBIC), University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain; CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain.
| | - Jorge Novo
- VARPA Group, Biomedical Research Institute of A Coruña (INIBIC), University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain; CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain.
| | - José Ignacio Fernández-Vigo
- Departamento de Oftalmología, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain; Centro Internacional de Oftalmología Avanzada, Madrid, Spain.
| | | | - Marcos Ortega
- VARPA Group, Biomedical Research Institute of A Coruña (INIBIC), University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain; CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain.
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7
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Vidal P, de Moura J, Novo J, Ortega M. Multivendor fully automatic uncertainty management approaches for the intuitive representation of DME fluid accumulations in OCT images. Med Biol Eng Comput 2023; 61:1209-1224. [PMID: 36690902 PMCID: PMC10083163 DOI: 10.1007/s11517-022-02765-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes represents one of the main causes of blindness in developed countries, caused by fluid accumulations in the retinal layers. The clinical literature defines the different types of diabetic macular edema (DME) as cystoid macular edema (CME), diffuse retinal thickening (DRT), and serous retinal detachment (SRD), each with its own clinical relevance. These fluid accumulations do not present defined borders that facilitate segmentational approaches (specially the DRT type, usually not taken into account by the state of the art for this reason) so a diffuse paradigm is used for its detection and visualization. In this paper, we propose three novel approaches for the representation and characterization of these types of DME. A baseline proposal, using a convolutional neural network as backbone, another based on transfer learning from a general domain, and a third approach exploiting information of regions without a defined label. Overall, our baseline proposal obtained an AUC of 0.9583 ± 0.0093, the approach pretrained with a general-domain dataset an AUC of 0.9603 ± 0.0087, and the approach pretrained in the domain taking advantage of uncertainty, an AUC of 0.9619 ± 0.0073.
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Affiliation(s)
- Plácido Vidal
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, Campus de Elviña, s/n, A Coruña, 15071, Galicia, Spain.,Grupo VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, Xubias de Arriba, 84, A Coruña, 15006, Galicia, Spain
| | - Joaquim de Moura
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, Campus de Elviña, s/n, A Coruña, 15071, Galicia, Spain. .,Grupo VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, Xubias de Arriba, 84, A Coruña, 15006, Galicia, Spain.
| | - Jorge Novo
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, Campus de Elviña, s/n, A Coruña, 15071, Galicia, Spain.,Grupo VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, Xubias de Arriba, 84, A Coruña, 15006, Galicia, Spain
| | - Marcos Ortega
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, Campus de Elviña, s/n, A Coruña, 15071, Galicia, Spain.,Grupo VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, Xubias de Arriba, 84, A Coruña, 15006, Galicia, Spain
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8
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Pavithra K, Kumar P, Geetha M, Bhandary SV. Computer aided diagnosis of diabetic macular edema in retinal fundus and OCT images: A review. Biocybern Biomed Eng 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbe.2022.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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9
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Rajagopalan N, N. V, Josephraj AN, E. S. Diagnosis of retinal disorders from Optical Coherence Tomography images using CNN. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254180. [PMID: 34314421 PMCID: PMC8315505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
An efficient automatic decision support system for detection of retinal disorders is important and is the need of the hour. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is the current imaging modality for the early detection of retinal disorders non-invasively. In this work, a Convolution Neural Network (CNN) model is proposed to classify three types of retinal disorders namely: Choroidal neovascularization (CNV), Drusen macular degeneration (DMD) and Diabetic macular edema (DME). The hyperparameters of the model like batch size, number of epochs, dropout rate, and the type of optimizer are tuned using random search optimization method for better performance to classify different retinal disorders. The proposed architecture provides an accuracy of 97.01%, sensitivity of 93.43%, and 98.07% specificity and it outperformed other existing models, when compared. The proposed model can be used for the large-scale screening of retinal disorders effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nithya Rajagopalan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India
- * E-mail:
| | - Venkateswaran N.
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India
| | - Alex Noel Josephraj
- Department of Electronic Engineering, College of Engineering, Shantou University, Shantou, China
| | - Srithaladevi E.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India
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10
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de Moura J, Samagaio G, Novo J, Almuina P, Fernández MI, Ortega M. Joint Diabetic Macular Edema Segmentation and Characterization in OCT Images. J Digit Imaging 2021; 33:1335-1351. [PMID: 32562127 DOI: 10.1007/s10278-020-00360-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The automatic identification and segmentation of edemas associated with diabetic macular edema (DME) constitutes a crucial ophthalmological issue as they provide useful information for the evaluation of the disease severity. According to clinical knowledge, the DME disorder can be categorized into three main pathological types: serous retinal detachment (SRD), cystoid macular edema (CME), and diffuse retinal thickening (DRT). The implementation of computational systems for their automatic extraction and characterization may help the clinicians in their daily clinical practice, adjusting the diagnosis and therapies and consequently the life quality of the patients. In this context, this paper proposes a fully automatic system for the identification, segmentation and characterization of the three ME types using optical coherence tomography (OCT) images. In the case of SRD and CME edemas, different approaches were implemented adapting graph cuts and active contours for their identification and precise delimitation. In the case of the DRT edemas, given their fuzzy regional appearance that requires a complex extraction process, an exhaustive analysis using a learning strategy was designed, exploiting intensity, texture, and clinical-based information. The different steps of this methodology were validated with a heterogeneous set of 262 OCT images, using the manual labeling provided by an expert clinician. In general terms, the system provided satisfactory results, reaching Dice coefficient scores of 0.8768, 0.7475, and 0.8913 for the segmentation of SRD, CME, and DRT edemas, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim de Moura
- Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain. .,CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.
| | - Gabriela Samagaio
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge Novo
- Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Pablo Almuina
- Department of Ophthalmology, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - María Isabel Fernández
- Department of Ophthalmology, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.,Instituto Oftalmológico Gómez-Ulla, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.,University of Santiago de Compostela, 15705, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Marcos Ortega
- Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
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11
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A Joint Model for Macular Edema Analysis in Optical Coherence Tomography Images Based on Image Enhancement and Segmentation. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6679556. [PMID: 33681374 PMCID: PMC7904365 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6679556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides the visualization of macular edema which can assist ophthalmologists in the diagnosis of ocular diseases. Macular edema is a major cause of vision loss in patients with retinal vein occlusion (RVO). However, manual delineation of macular edema is a laborious and time-consuming task. This study proposes a joint model for automatic delineation of macular edema in OCT images. This model consists of two steps: image enhancement using a bioinspired algorithm and macular edema segmentation using a Gaussian-filtering regularized level set (SBGFRLS) algorithm. We then evaluated the delineation efficiency using the following parameters: accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity, Dice's similarity coefficient, IOU, and kappa coefficient. Compared with the traditional level set algorithms, including C-V and GAC, the proposed model had higher efficiency in macular edema delineation as shown by reduced processing time and iteration times. Moreover, the accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity, Dice's similarity coefficient, IOU, and kappa coefficient for macular edema delineation could reach 99.7%, 97.8%, 96.0%, 99.0%, 96.9%, 94.0%, and 96.8%, respectively. More importantly, the proposed model had comparable precision but shorter processing time compared with manual delineation. Collectively, this study provides a novel model for the delineation of macular edema in OCT images, which can assist the ophthalmologists for the screening and diagnosis of retinal diseases.
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12
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Liu K, Zhang M, Hassan MK. Intelligent image recognition system for detecting abnormal features of scenic spots based on deep learning. JOURNAL OF INTELLIGENT & FUZZY SYSTEMS 2020. [DOI: 10.3233/jifs-189000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
To monitor the scene anomaly in real-time through video and image and identify the emergencies, try to respond quickly at the beginning of the emergency and reduce the loss. This paper mainly focuses on the realization of the image recognition system for the anomalous characteristics of tourism emergencies. The problem is to study the number of people in the scenic spot based on scenic spot monitoring. The video-based population anomaly monitoring method has improved the AUC index of the W-SFM method by 0.423, and the AUC has increased by 0.0844 compared with the optical flow method; Degree-enhanced algorithm (BCOF), by grasping the micro-blog data related to the scenic spot, comprehensively predicts the overall comfort of the current tourists in the scenic spot, and establishes a tourist state expression model. Compared with the BN algorithm and the NEG algorithm, the BCOF algorithm is the accuracy and the recall rate of tourists in the scenic spots was improved by 14% and 18% respectively. The image recognition system of tourism emergency anomaly was established, and the early warning model of tourism emergency based on group intelligence perception was used to implement early warning on scenic spots. Monitoring, can achieve an overall accuracy of 83.33%, the model has a strong predictive ability, and achieves a scenic spot Real-time monitoring of events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kainan Liu
- College of Information and Intelligent Engineering, University of Sanya, China
| | - Meiyun Zhang
- College of Information and Intelligent Engineering, University of Sanya, China
- College of Humanities and Communication, University of Sanya, China
| | - Mohammed K. Hassan
- Department of Mechatronics, Faculty of Engineering, Horus university, Egypt
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13
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Infrared retinal images for flashless detection of macular edema. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14384. [PMID: 32873818 PMCID: PMC7463268 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71010-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluates the use of infrared (IR) images of the retina, obtained without flashes of light, for machine-based detection of macular oedema (ME). A total of 41 images of 21 subjects, here with 23 cases and 18 controls, were studied. Histogram and gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) parameters were extracted from the IR retinal images. The diagnostic performance of the histogram and GLCM parameters was calculated in hindsight based on the known labels of each image. The results from the one-way ANOVA indicated there was a significant difference between ME eyes and the controls when using GLCM features, with the correlation feature having the highest area under the curve (AUC) (AZ) value. The performance of the proposed method was also evaluated using a support vector machine (SVM) classifier that gave sensitivity and specificity of 100%. This research shows that the texture of the IR images of the retina has a significant difference between ME eyes and the controls and that it can be considered for machine-based detection of ME without requiring flashes of light.
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14
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Sandhu HS, Elmogy M, Taher Sharafeldeen A, Elsharkawy M, El-Adawy N, Eltanboly A, Shalaby A, Keynton R, El-Baz A. Automated Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Clinical Biomarkers, Optical Coherence Tomography, and Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography. Am J Ophthalmol 2020; 216:201-206. [PMID: 31982407 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2020.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine if combining clinical, demographic, and imaging data improves automated diagnosis of nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR). DESIGN Cross-sectional imaging and machine learning study. METHODS This was a retrospective study performed at a single academic medical center in the United States. Inclusion criteria were age >18 years and a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (DM). Exclusion criteria were non-DR retinal disease and inability to image the macula. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) were performed, and data on age, sex, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and hemoglobin A1c were collected. Machine learning techniques were then applied. Multiple pathophysiologically important features were automatically extracted from each layer on OCT and each OCTA plexus and combined with clinical data in a random forest classifier to develop the system, whose results were compared to the clinical grading of NPDR, the gold standard. RESULTS A total of 111 patients with DM II were included in the study, 36 with DM without DR, 53 with mild NPDR, and 22 with moderate NPDR. When OCT images alone were analyzed by the system, accuracy of diagnosis was 76%, sensitivity 85%, specificity 87%, and area under the curve (AUC) was 0.78. When OCT and OCTA data together were analyzed, accuracy was 92%, sensitivity 95%, specificity 98%, and AUC 0.92. When all data modalities were combined, the system achieved an accuracy of 96%, sensitivity 100%, specificity 94%, and AUC 0.96. CONCLUSIONS Combining common clinical data points with OCT and OCTA data enhances the power of computer-aided diagnosis of NPDR.
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15
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He M, Li Z, Liu C, Shi D, Tan Z. Deployment of Artificial Intelligence in Real-World Practice: Opportunity and Challenge. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) 2020; 9:299-307. [PMID: 32694344 DOI: 10.1097/apo.0000000000000301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial intelligence has rapidly evolved from the experimental phase to the implementation phase in many image-driven clinical disciplines, including ophthalmology. A combination of the increasing availability of large datasets and computing power with revolutionary progress in deep learning has created unprecedented opportunities for major breakthrough improvements in the performance and accuracy of automated diagnoses that primarily focus on image recognition and feature detection. Such an automated disease classification would significantly improve the accessibility, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of eye care systems where it is less dependent on human input, potentially enabling diagnosis to be cheaper, quicker, and more consistent. Although this technology will have a profound impact on clinical flow and practice patterns sooner or later, translating such a technology into clinical practice is challenging and requires similar levels of accountability and effectiveness as any new medication or medical device due to the potential problems of bias, and ethical, medical, and legal issues that might arise. The objective of this review is to summarize the opportunities and challenges of this transition and to facilitate the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into routine clinical practice based on our best understanding and experience in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingguang He
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Zhixi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- School of Computer Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo NSW, Australia
| | - Danli Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zachary Tan
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Schwarzman College, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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16
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de Moura J, Novo J, Rouco J, Charlón P, Ortega M. Artery/Vein Vessel Tree Identification in Near-Infrared Reflectance Retinographies. J Digit Imaging 2019; 32:947-962. [PMID: 31144147 PMCID: PMC6841835 DOI: 10.1007/s10278-019-00235-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An accurate identification of the retinal arteries and veins is a relevant issue in the development of automatic computer-aided diagnosis systems that facilitate the analysis of different relevant diseases that affect the vascular system as diabetes or hypertension, among others. The proposed method offers a complete analysis of the retinal vascular tree structure by its identification and posterior classification into arteries and veins using optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans. These scans include the near-infrared reflectance retinography images, the ones we used in this work, in combination with the corresponding histological sections. The method, firstly, segments the vessel tree and identifies its characteristic points. Then, Global Intensity-Based Features (GIBS) are used to measure the differences in the intensity profiles between arteries and veins. A k-means clustering classifier employs these features to evaluate the potential of artery/vein identification of the proposed method. Finally, a post-processing stage is applied to correct misclassifications using context information and maximize the performance of the classification process. The methodology was validated using an OCT image dataset retrieved from 46 different patients, where 2,392 vessel segments and 97,294 vessel points were manually labeled by an expert clinician. The method achieved satisfactory results, reaching a best accuracy of 93.35% in the identification of arteries and veins, being the first proposal that faces this issue in this image modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim de Moura
- Department of Computer Science, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
- CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jorge Novo
- Department of Computer Science, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
- CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - José Rouco
- Department of Computer Science, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
- CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Pablo Charlón
- Instituto Oftalmológico Victoria de Rojas, 15009 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Marcos Ortega
- Department of Computer Science, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
- CITIC - Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
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17
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Li F, Chen H, Liu Z, Zhang XD, Jiang MS, Wu ZZ, Zhou KQ. Deep learning-based automated detection of retinal diseases using optical coherence tomography images. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:6204-6226. [PMID: 31853395 PMCID: PMC6913386 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.006204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Retinal disease classification is a significant problem in computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) for medical applications. This paper is focused on a 4-class classification problem to automatically detect choroidal neovascularization (CNV), diabetic macular edema (DME), DRUSEN, and NORMAL in optical coherence tomography (OCT) images. The proposed classification algorithm adopted an ensemble of four classification model instances to identify retinal OCT images, each of which was based on an improved residual neural network (ResNet50). The experiment followed a patient-level 10-fold cross-validation process, on development retinal OCT image dataset. The proposed approach achieved 0.973 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.971-0.975) classification accuracy, 0.963 (95% CI, 0.960-0.966) sensitivity, and 0.985 (95% CI, 0.983-0.987) specificity at the B-scan level, achieving a matching or exceeding performance to that of ophthalmologists with significant clinical experience. Other performance measures used in the study were the area under receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and kappa value. The observations of the study implied that multi-ResNet50 ensembling was a useful technique when the availability of medical images was limited. In addition, we performed qualitative evaluation of model predictions, and occlusion testing to understand the decision-making process of our model. The paper provided an analytical discussion on misclassification and pathology regions identified by the occlusion testing also. Finally, we explored the effect of the integration of retinal OCT images and medical history data from patients on model performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- School of Optical-Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Hua Chen
- School of Optical-Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- School of Optical-Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xue-dian Zhang
- School of Optical-Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Min-shan Jiang
- School of Optical-Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA
| | - Zhi-zheng Wu
- Department of Precision Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
| | - Kai-qian Zhou
- Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai 200032, China
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18
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Cabaleiro P, de Moura J, Novo J, Charlón P, Ortega M. Automatic Identification and Representation of the Cornea-Contact Lens Relationship Using AS-OCT Images. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:s19235087. [PMID: 31766394 PMCID: PMC6929080 DOI: 10.3390/s19235087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The clinical study of the cornea-contact lens relationship is widely used in the process of adaptation of the scleral contact lens (SCL) to the ocular morphology of patients. In that sense, the measurement of the adjustment between the SCL and the cornea can be used to study the comfort or potential damage that the lens may produce in the eye. The current analysis procedure implies the manual inspection of optical coherence tomography of the anterior segment images (AS-OCT) by the clinical experts. This process presents several limitations such as the inability to obtain complex metrics, the inaccuracies of the manual measurements or the requirement of a time-consuming process by the expert in a tedious process, among others. This work proposes a fully-automatic methodology for the extraction of the areas of interest in the study of the cornea-contact lens relationship and the measurement of representative metrics that allow the clinicians to measure quantitatively the adjustment between the lens and the eye. In particular, three distance metrics are herein proposed: Vertical, normal to the tangent of the region of interest and by the nearest point. Moreover, the images are classified to characterize the analysis as belonging to the central cornea, peripheral cornea, limbus or sclera (regions where the inner layer of the lens has already joined the cornea). Finally, the methodology graphically presents the results of the identified segmentations using an intuitive visualization that facilitates the analysis and diagnosis of the patients by the clinical experts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Cabaleiro
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; (P.C.); (J.N.); (M.O.)
- VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, 15006 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Joaquim de Moura
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; (P.C.); (J.N.); (M.O.)
- VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, 15006 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jorge Novo
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; (P.C.); (J.N.); (M.O.)
- VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, 15006 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Pablo Charlón
- Instituto Oftalmológico Victoria de Rojas, 15009 A Coruña, Spain;
- Hospital HM Rosaleda, 15701 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Marcos Ortega
- Centro de investigación CITIC, Universidade da Coruña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; (P.C.); (J.N.); (M.O.)
- VARPA, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), Universidade da Coruña, 15006 A Coruña, Spain
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19
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Perdomo O, Rios H, Rodríguez FJ, Otálora S, Meriaudeau F, Müller H, González FA. Classification of diabetes-related retinal diseases using a deep learning approach in optical coherence tomography. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2019; 178:181-189. [PMID: 31416547 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2019.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT) is a volumetric imaging technique that allows measuring patterns between layers such as small amounts of fluid. Since 2012, automatic medical image analysis performance has steadily increased through the use of deep learning models that automatically learn relevant features for specific tasks, instead of designing visual features manually. Nevertheless, providing insights and interpretation of the predictions made by the model is still a challenge. This paper describes a deep learning model able to detect medically interpretable information in relevant images from a volume to classify diabetes-related retinal diseases. METHODS This article presents a new deep learning model, OCT-NET, which is a customized convolutional neural network for processing scans extracted from optical coherence tomography volumes. OCT-NET is applied to the classification of three conditions seen in SD-OCT volumes. Additionally, the proposed model includes a feedback stage that highlights the areas of the scans to support the interpretation of the results. This information is potentially useful for a medical specialist while assessing the prediction produced by the model. RESULTS The proposed model was tested on the public SERI-CUHK and A2A SD-OCT data sets containing healthy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic macular edema and age-related macular degeneration. The experimental evaluation shows that the proposed method outperforms conventional convolutional deep learning models from the state of the art reported on the SERI+CUHK and A2A SD-OCT data sets with a precision of 93% and an area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.99 respectively. CONCLUSIONS The proposed method is able to classify the three studied retinal diseases with high accuracy. One advantage of the method is its ability to produce interpretable clinical information in the form of highlighting the regions of the image that most contribute to the classifier decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Perdomo
- MindLab Research Group, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Edificio 453, Laboratorio 207, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Hernán Rios
- Fundación Oftalmológica Nacional, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Sebastián Otálora
- University of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Sierre, Switzerland; University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Henning Müller
- University of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Sierre, Switzerland; University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Fabio A González
- MindLab Research Group, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Edificio 453, Laboratorio 207, Bogotá, Colombia. https://sites.google.com/a/unal.edu.co/mindlab/
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20
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González-López A, de Moura J, Novo J, Ortega M, Penedo MG. Robust segmentation of retinal layers in optical coherence tomography images based on a multistage active contour model. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01271. [PMID: 30891515 PMCID: PMC6401526 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) constitutes an imaging technique that is increasing its popularity in the ophthalmology field, since it offers a more complete set of information about the main retinal structures. Hence, it offers detailed information about the eye fundus morphology, allowing the identification of many intraretinal pathological signs. For that reason, over the recent years, Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD) systems have spread to work with this image modality and analyze its information. A crucial step for the analysis of the retinal tissues implies the identification and delimitation of the different retinal layers. In this context, we present in this work a fully automatic method for the identification of the main retinal layers that delimits the retinal region. Thus, an active contour-based model was completely adapted and optimized to segment these main retinal boundaries. This fully automatic method uses the information of the horizontal placement of these retinal layers and their relative location over the analyzed images to restrict the search space, considering the presence of shadows that are normally generated by pathological or non-pathological artifacts. The validation process was done using the groundtruth of an expert ophthalmologist analyzing healthy as well as unhealthy patients with different degrees of diabetic retinopathy (without macular edema, with macular edema and with lesions in the photoreceptor layers). Quantitative results are in line with the state of the art of this domain, providing accurate segmentations of the retinal layers even when significative pathological alterations are present in the eye fundus. Therefore, the proposed method is robust enough to be used in complex environments, making it feasible for the ophthalmologists in their routine clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A González-López
- Department of Computing, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
| | - J de Moura
- Department of Computing, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
| | - J Novo
- Department of Computing, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
| | - M Ortega
- Department of Computing, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
| | - M G Penedo
- Department of Computing, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain.,CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
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