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Dubinsky JM, Hamid AA. The neuroscience of active learning and direct instruction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105737. [PMID: 38796122 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
Throughout the educational system, students experiencing active learning pedagogy perform better and fail less than those taught through direct instruction. Can this be ascribed to differences in learning from a neuroscientific perspective? This review examines mechanistic, neuroscientific evidence that might explain differences in cognitive engagement contributing to learning outcomes between these instructional approaches. In classrooms, direct instruction comprehensively describes academic content, while active learning provides structured opportunities for learners to explore, apply, and manipulate content. Synaptic plasticity and its modulation by arousal or novelty are central to all learning and both approaches. As a form of social learning, direct instruction relies upon working memory. The reinforcement learning circuit, associated agency, curiosity, and peer-to-peer social interactions combine to enhance motivation, improve retention, and build higher-order-thinking skills in active learning environments. When working memory becomes overwhelmed, additionally engaging the reinforcement learning circuit improves retention, providing an explanation for the benefits of active learning. This analysis provides a mechanistic examination of how emerging neuroscience principles might inform pedagogical choices at all educational levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Dubinsky
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Arif A Hamid
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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2
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Fine JM, Yoo SBM, Hayden BY. Control over a mixture of policies determines change of mind topology during continuous choice. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.18.590154. [PMID: 38712284 PMCID: PMC11071291 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.18.590154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Behavior is naturally organized into categorically distinct states with corresponding patterns of neural activity; how does the brain control those states? We propose that states are regulated by specific neural processes that implement meta-control that can blend simpler control processes. To test this hypothesis, we recorded from neurons in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) while macaques performed a continuous pursuit task with two moving prey that followed evasive strategies. We used a novel control theoretic approach to infer subjects' moment-to-moment latent control variables, which in turn dictated their blend of distinct identifiable control processes. We identified low-dimensional subspaces in neuronal responses that reflected the current strategy, the value of the pursued target, and the relative value of the two targets. The top two principal components of activity tracked changes of mind in abstract and change-type-specific formats, respectively. These results indicate that control of behavioral state reflects the interaction of brain processes found in dorsal prefrontal regions that implement a mixture over low-level control policies.
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3
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Schank JC, Lutz MC, Wood SY. Information and the Umwelt: A theoretical framework for the evolution of play. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105349. [PMID: 37543176 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Play is phylogenetically widespread, and there are many proposed theories and fitness benefits of play. However, we still need a theoretical framework that unifies our understanding of the benefits that facilitated the evolution of play in so many diverse species. Starting with von Uexküll's theory of the Umwelt (i.e., the sensory-motor worlds of animals), together with the behavior systems approach, we propose that the Umwelt is an information processing system that serves basic biological functions. During development, the Umwelt undergoes a rapid expansion in the sensory and motor stimuli it processes. We argue that play is a process that converts surplus resources into information. By increasing the information content of the developing Umwelt, play confers fitness benefits. To demonstrate that play could evolve based on its information benefits, we present a model and simulation results of the evolution of a social play learning process that provides fitness-enhancing information in adult cooperative and competitive situations. Finally, we discuss this information-theoretic framework in relation to proposed hypotheses and fitness benefits of play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey C Schank
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Meredith C Lutz
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sydney Y Wood
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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4
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Ivancovsky T, Baror S, Bar M. A shared novelty-seeking basis for creativity and curiosity. Behav Brain Sci 2023; 47:e89. [PMID: 37547934 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x23002807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Curiosity and creativity are central pillars of human growth and invention. Although they have been studied extensively in isolation, the relationship between them has not yet been established. We propose that both curiosity and creativity emanate from the same mechanism of novelty seeking. We first present a synthesis showing that curiosity and creativity are affected similarly by a number of key cognitive faculties such as memory, cognitive control, attention, and reward. We then review empirical evidence from neuroscience research, indicating that the same brain regions are involved in both curiosity and creativity, focusing on the interplay between three major brain networks: the default mode network, the salience network, and the executive control network. After substantiating the link between curiosity and creativity, we propose a novelty-seeking model (NSM) that underlies them and suggests that the manifestation of the NSM is governed by one's state of mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Ivancovsky
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan,
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Shira Baror
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Moshe Bar
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan,
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5
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Barnett WH, Kuznetsov A, Lapish CC. Distinct cortico-striatal compartments drive competition between adaptive and automatized behavior. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279841. [PMID: 36943842 PMCID: PMC10030038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cortical and basal ganglia circuits play a crucial role in the formation of goal-directed and habitual behaviors. In this study, we investigate the cortico-striatal circuitry involved in learning and the role of this circuitry in the emergence of inflexible behaviors such as those observed in addiction. Specifically, we develop a computational model of cortico-striatal interactions that performs concurrent goal-directed and habit learning. The model accomplishes this by distinguishing learning processes in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) that rely on reward prediction error signals as distinct from the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) where learning is supported by salience signals. These striatal subregions each operate on unique cortical input: the DMS receives input from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) which represents outcomes, and the DLS receives input from the premotor cortex which determines action selection. Following an initial learning of a two-alternative forced choice task, we subjected the model to reversal learning, reward devaluation, and learning a punished outcome. Behavior driven by stimulus-response associations in the DLS resisted goal-directed learning of new reward feedback rules despite devaluation or punishment, indicating the expression of habit. We repeated these simulations after the impairment of executive control, which was implemented as poor outcome representation in the PFC. The degraded executive control reduced the efficacy of goal-directed learning, and stimulus-response associations in the DLS were even more resistant to the learning of new reward feedback rules. In summary, this model describes how circuits of the dorsal striatum are dynamically engaged to control behavior and how the impairment of executive control by the PFC enhances inflexible behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H. Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Alexey Kuznetsov
- Department of Mathematics, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Lapish
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
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6
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Kenett YN, Humphries S, Chatterjee A. A Thirst for Knowledge: Grounding Curiosity, Creativity, and Aesthetics in Memory and Reward Neural Systems. CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/10400419.2023.2165748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoed N. Kenett
- Technion - Faculty of Data and Decision Sciences, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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7
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Ajuwon V, Ojeda A, Murphy RA, Monteiro T, Kacelnik A. Paradoxical choice and the reinforcing value of information. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:623-637. [PMID: 36306041 PMCID: PMC9950180 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01698-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Signals that reduce uncertainty can be valuable because well-informed decision-makers can better align their preferences to opportunities. However, some birds and mammals display an appetite for informative signals that cannot be used to increase returns. We explore the role that reward-predictive stimuli have in fostering such preferences, aiming at distinguishing between two putative underlying mechanisms. The 'information hypothesis' proposes that reducing uncertainty is reinforcing per se, somewhat consistently with the concept of curiosity: a motivation to know in the absence of tractable extrinsic benefits. In contrast, the 'conditioned reinforcement hypothesis', an associative account, proposes asymmetries in secondarily acquired reinforcement: post-choice stimuli announcing forthcoming rewards (S+) reinforce responses more than stimuli signalling no rewards (S-) inhibit responses. In three treatments, rats faced two equally profitable options delivering food probabilistically after a fixed delay. In the informative option (Info), food or no food was signalled immediately after choice, whereas in the non-informative option (NoInfo) outcomes were uncertain until the delay lapsed. Subjects preferred Info when (1) both outcomes were explicitly signalled by salient auditory cues, (2) only forthcoming food delivery was explicitly signalled, and (3) only the absence of forthcoming reward was explicitly signalled. Acquisition was slower in (3), when food was not explicitly signalled, showing that signals for positive outcomes have a greater influence on the development of preference than signals for negative ones. Our results are consistent with an elaborated conditioned reinforcement account, and with the conjecture that both uncertainty reduction and conditioned reinforcement jointly act to generate preference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Ajuwon
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Andrés Ojeda
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Robin A. Murphy
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tiago Monteiro
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK ,grid.6583.80000 0000 9686 6466Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alex Kacelnik
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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Wu S, Blanchard T, Meschke E, Aslin RN, Hayden BY, Kidd C. Macaques preferentially attend to intermediately surprising information. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20220144. [PMID: 35857891 PMCID: PMC9256086 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Normative learning theories dictate that we should preferentially attend to informative sources, but only up to the point that our limited learning systems can process their content. Humans, including infants, show this predicted strategic deployment of attention. Here, we demonstrate that rhesus monkeys, much like humans, attend to events of moderate surprisingness over both more and less surprising events. They do this in the absence of any specific goal or contingent reward, indicating that the behavioural pattern is spontaneous. We suggest this U-shaped attentional preference represents an evolutionarily preserved strategy for guiding intelligent organisms toward material that is maximally useful for learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengyi Wu
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way West, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | | | - Emily Meschke
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, 175 Li Ka Shing Center, MC 3370, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Richard N Aslin
- Haskins Laboratories, Yale University, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Benjamin Y Hayden
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Celeste Kidd
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way West, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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9
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Dubey R, Griffiths TL, Lombrozo T. If it's important, then I'm curious: Increasing perceived usefulness stimulates curiosity. Cognition 2022; 226:105193. [PMID: 35696871 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Curiosity is considered essential for learning and sustained engagement, yet stimulating curiosity in educational contexts remains a challenge. Can people's curiosity about a scientific topic be stimulated by providing evidence that knowledge about the topic has potential value to society? Here, we show that increasing perceptions of 'social usefulness' regarding a scientific topic also increases curiosity and subsequent information search. Our results also show that simply presenting interesting facts is not enough to influence curiosity, and that people are more likely to be curious about a scientific topic if they perceive it to be useful personally and socially. Given the link between curiosity and learning, these results have important implications for science communication and education more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachit Dubey
- Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, USA.
| | - Thomas L Griffiths
- Departments of Psychology and Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
| | - Tania Lombrozo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
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10
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Abir Y, Marvin CB, van Geen C, Leshkowitz M, Hassin RR, Shohamy D. An energizing role for motivation in information-seeking during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2310. [PMID: 35484153 PMCID: PMC9050882 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30011-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of understanding and managing information seeking behavior. Information-seeking in humans is often viewed as irrational rather than utility maximizing. Here, we hypothesized that this apparent disconnect between utility and information-seeking is due to a latent third variable, motivation. We quantified information-seeking, learning, and COVID-19-related concern (which we used as a proxy for motivation regarding COVID-19 and the changes in circumstance it caused) in a US-based sample (n = 5376) during spring 2020. We found that self-reported levels of COVID-19 concern were associated with directed seeking of COVID-19-related content and better memory for such information. Interestingly, this specific motivational state was also associated with a general enhancement of information-seeking for content unrelated to COVID-19. These effects were associated with commensurate changes to utility expectations and were dissociable from the influence of non-specific anxiety. Thus, motivation both directs and energizes epistemic behavior, linking together utility and curiosity. Information-seeking behavior in humans is often viewed as irrational rather than utility maximizing. Here the authors describe data obtained in Spring 2020 showing that participants’ concern about COVID-19 was related not only to their drive to seek information about the virus, but also to their curiosity about other more general topics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Abir
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | | | - Camilla van Geen
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Maya Leshkowitz
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ran R Hassin
- Department of Psychology and The Federmann Center for the Study of Rationality, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Daphna Shohamy
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.,Kavli Institute for Brain Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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11
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Karayanni M, Nelken I. Extrinsic rewards, intrinsic rewards, and non-optimal behavior. J Comput Neurosci 2022; 50:139-143. [PMID: 35122189 DOI: 10.1007/s10827-022-00813-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The optimality of behavior in experimental settings is usually determined with respect to an extrinsic reward defined by the experimenters. However, actions that do not lead to reward are ubiquitous in many species and in many experimental paradigms. Modern research on decision processes commonly treat non-optimal behaviors as noise, often excluding from analysis animals that do not reach behavioral performance criteria. However, non-optimal behaviors can be a window on important brain processes. Here we explore the evidence that non-optimal behaviors are the consequence of intrinsically motivated actions, related to drives that are different from that of obtaining extrinsic reward. One way of operationally characterizing these drives is by postulating intrinsic rewards associated with them. Behaviors that are apparently non-optimal can be interpreted as the consequence of optimal decisions whose goal is to optimize a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. We review intrinsic rewards that have been discussed in the literature, and suggest ways of testing their existence and role in shaping animal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mousa Karayanni
- Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Israel Nelken
- Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
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12
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Wyllie A, Levett-Jones T, DiGiacomo M, Davidson PM. A qualitative study exploring the career mindset of a group of early career academic nurses as they deployed 'Habits of Mind' to sustain their career journey. Nurse Educ Pract 2021; 55:103149. [PMID: 34293706 DOI: 10.1016/j.nepr.2021.103149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM This study aimed to explore the qualities that sustain a career mindset in a group of early career academics in one Australian university. BACKGROUND Building an academic career is a lengthy, convoluted and complex journey requiring a mindset prepared to make informed and timely decisions. Success is predicated to a large extent on the ability of persons to process information effectively before actions are taken. Employing 'Habits of Mind' supports growth in intelligent behaviours through acquiring a composite of skills, attitudes, cues and past experiences that maximises appropriate choice of one pattern of thinking over another. A level of skill is required to employ 'Habits of Mind', suggesting that reflection and evaluation of experiences are critical to the process. In this, the third phase of a four-phase sequential study, the career mindset of a group of early career academic nurses were studied during 2019. A cluster of 'Habits of Mind' emerged as having value for an academic career mindset, allowing the individuals to meet challenges of negotiating a career terrain and deepening their learning about those situations. Time and energy could therefore be appropriated to engage with the academic global community in new and career challenging health related research. DESIGN A qualitative descriptive approach. METHODS The study applied the epistemology and constructivist thinking of John Dewey and the self-directed learning theories of Mezirow and Knowles. Set in a large metropolitan university in Sydney, Australia. A purposive sample of nine early career academic nurses were interviewed using semi-structured, one-to-one audio-taped interviews. Data were analysed thematically using Braun and Clarke (2006) six phase process. RESULTS Findings revealed that deployment of the cluster of the five distinctive themes or 'Habits of Mind': Rely on self; take responsible risks; think with colleagues; keep an open mind and possess curiosity into the novice nurses' mindset, expedited self-directed learning processes, resulting in sharpening of their learning power to enable a more productive career journey. CONCLUSIONS It is argued that 'Habits of Minds' can provide a valuable learning framework when directing a career mindset and, that inclusion by providers of leadership, career or mentorship programs can sustain an academic environment where a culture of learning can flourish and where ECANs are equipped with attributes and behaviours necessary to address global demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen Wyllie
- Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
| | | | - Michelle DiGiacomo
- ImPACCT (Centre for Improving Palliative, Aged and Chronic Care through Clinical Research and Translation), Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
| | - Patricia M Davidson
- Vice-Chancellor and Principal, The Vice-Chancellor's Unit, Building 36, University of Wollongong, Australia.
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13
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Tian X, Silva AC, Liu C. The Brain Circuits and Dynamics of Curiosity-Driven Behavior in Naturally Curious Marmosets. Cereb Cortex 2021; 31:4220-4232. [PMID: 33839768 PMCID: PMC8485152 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Curiosity is a fundamental nature of animals for adapting to changing environments, but its underlying brain circuits and mechanisms remain poorly understood. One main barrier is that existing studies use rewards to train animals and motivate their engagement in behavioral tasks. As such, the rewards become significant confounders in interpreting curiosity. Here, we overcame this problem by studying research-naïve and naturally curious marmosets that can proactively and persistently participate in a visual choice task without external rewards. When performing the task, the marmosets manifested a strong innate preference towards acquiring new information, associated with faster behavioral responses. Longitudinally functional magnetic resonance imaging revealed behavior-relevant brain states that reflected choice preferences and engaged several brain regions, including the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and cortical areas 19DI, 25, and 46D, with the cerebellum being the most prominent. These results unveil the essential brain circuits and dynamics underlying curiosity-driven activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoguang Tian
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15261, USA.,Cerebral Microcirculation Section, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD 20892, USA
| | - Afonso C Silva
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15261, USA.,Cerebral Microcirculation Section, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD 20892, USA
| | - Cirong Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15261, USA.,Cerebral Microcirculation Section, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD 20892, USA.,Institute of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.,Shanghai Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence Technology, Shanghai 201210, China
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14
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Abstract
Humans and other animals evolved to make decisions that extend over time with continuous and ever-changing options. Nonetheless, the academic study of decision-making is mostly limited to the simple case of choice between two options. Here, we advocate that the study of choice should expand to include continuous decisions. Continuous decisions, by our definition, involve a continuum of possible responses and take place over an extended period of time during which the response is continuously subject to modification. In most continuous decisions, the range of options can fluctuate and is affected by recent responses, making consideration of reciprocal feedback between choices and the environment essential. The study of continuous decisions raises new questions, such as how abstract processes of valuation and comparison are co-implemented with action planning and execution, how we simulate the large number of possible futures our choices lead to, and how our brains employ hierarchical structure to make choices more efficiently. While microeconomic theory has proven invaluable for discrete decisions, we propose that engineering control theory may serve as a better foundation for continuous ones. And while the concept of value has proven foundational for discrete decisions, goal states and policies may prove more useful for continuous ones. This article is part of the theme issue 'Existence and prevalence of economic behaviours among non-human primates'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seng Bum Michael Yoo
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Suwon, Republic of Korea, 16419
| | - Benjamin Yost Hayden
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroengineering, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - John M. Pearson
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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15
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