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Holt EA, Tyler A, Lakusta-Wong T, Lahue KG, Hankes KC, Teuscher C, Lynch RM, Ferris MT, Mahoney JM, Krementsov DN. Probing the basis of disease heterogeneity in multiple sclerosis using genetically diverse mice. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.03.597205. [PMID: 38895248 PMCID: PMC11185616 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.03.597205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex disease with significant heterogeneity in disease course and progression. Genetic studies have identified numerous loci associated with MS risk, but the genetic basis of disease progression remains elusive. To address this, we leveraged the Collaborative Cross (CC), a genetically diverse mouse strain panel, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The thirty-two CC strains studied captured a wide spectrum of EAE severity, trajectory, and presentation, including severe-progressive, monophasic, relapsing remitting, and axial rotary (AR)-EAE, accompanied by distinct immunopathology. Sex differences in EAE severity were observed in six strains. Quantitative trait locus analysis revealed distinct genetic linkage patterns for different EAE phenotypes, including EAE severity and incidence of AR-EAE. Machine learning-based approaches prioritized candidate genes for loci underlying EAE severity ( Abcc4 and Gpc6 ) and AR-EAE ( Yap1 and Dync2h1 ). This work expands the EAE phenotypic repertoire and identifies novel loci controlling unique EAE phenotypes, supporting the hypothesis that heterogeneity in MS disease course is driven by genetic variation. Summary The genetic basis of disease heterogeneity in multiple sclerosis (MS) remains elusive. We leveraged the Collaborative Cross to expand the phenotypic repertoire of the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS and identify loci controlling EAE severity, trajectory, and presentation.
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Wekerle H. Brain Autoimmunity and Intestinal Microbiota: 100 Trillion Game Changers. Trends Immunol 2017; 38:483-497. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Shiel RE, Kennedy LJ, Nolan CM, Mooney CT, Callanan JJ. Major histocompatibility complex class II alleles and haplotypes associated with non-suppurative meningoencephalitis in greyhounds. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 84:271-6. [PMID: 24851745 DOI: 10.1111/tan.12365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Non-suppurative meningoencephalitis is a breed-restricted canine neuroinflammatory disorder affecting young greyhounds in Ireland. A genetic risk factor is suspected because of the development of disease in multiple siblings and an inability to identify a causative infectious agent. The aim of this study was to examine potential associations between dog leucocyte antigen (DLA) class II haplotype and the presence of the disease. DLA three locus haplotypes were determined in 31 dogs with non-suppurative meningoencephalitis and in 115 healthy control dogs using sequence-based typing (SBT) methods. All dogs were unrelated at the parental level. Two haplotypes (DRB1*01802/DQA1*00101/DQB1*00802 and DRB1*01501/DQA1*00601/DQB1*02201) were significantly (P = 0.0099 and 0.037) associated with the presence of meningoencephalitis, with odds ratios (95% confidence interval) of 5.531 (1.168-26.19) and 3.736 (1.446-9.652), respectively. These results confirm that there is an association between DLA class II haplotype and greyhound meningoencephalitis, suggesting an immunogenetic risk factor for the development of the disease. Greyhound meningoencephalitis may be a suitable model for human neuroinflammatory diseases with an immunogenetic component.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Shiel
- Section of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Inhibition of TLR ligand- and interferon gamma-induced murine microglial activation by Panax notoginseng. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 7:465-76. [PMID: 22183805 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-011-9333-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Among the many products which influence microglial activation and resulting neuroinflammation, herbal medicine has recently drawn much attention due to its immunomodulatory and neuroprotective activities. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of an extract of Panax notoginseng (NotoG™) on TLR ligand- and IFNγ-induced activation in N9 and EOC20 microglial cells lines. NotoG suppressed microglial activation as measured by reduced expression of accessory molecules (CD40 and CD86), decreased production of inflammatory mediators (IL-6 and TNFα), and diminished release of antibacterial products (nitric oxide). Furthermore, this immunosuppressive activity was neither dependent on the glucocorticoid receptor, nor the result of a single ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, or Re), which are the major active constituents of the whole extract. NotoG and select ginsenosides may therefore be of therapeutic benefit in treating or preventing neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis and parkinson's disease.
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Handunnetthi L, Ramagopalan SV, Ebers GC, Knight JC. Regulation of major histocompatibility complex class II gene expression, genetic variation and disease. Genes Immun 2010; 11:99-112. [PMID: 19890353 PMCID: PMC2987717 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2009.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules are central to adaptive immune responses and maintenance of self-tolerance. Since the early 1970s, the MHC class II region at chromosome 6p21 has been shown to be associated with a remarkable number of autoimmune, inflammatory and infectious diseases. Given that a full explanation for most MHC class II disease associations has not been reached through analysis of structural variation alone, in this review we examine the role of genetic variation in modulating gene expression. We describe the intricate architecture of the MHC class II regulatory system, indicating how its unique characteristics may relate to observed associations with disease. There is evidence that haplotype-specific variation involving proximal promoter sequences can alter the level of gene expression, potentially modifying the emergence and expression of key phenotypic traits. Although much emphasis has been placed on cis-regulatory elements, we also examine the role of more distant enhancer elements together with the evidence of dynamic inter- and intra-chromosomal interactions and epigenetic processes. The role of genetic variation in such mechanisms may hold profound implications for susceptibility to common disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lahiru Handunnetthi
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Sreeram V. Ramagopalan
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - George C. Ebers
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Julian C. Knight
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
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Cytokines and cytokine profiles in human autoimmune diseases and animal models of autoimmunity. Mediators Inflamm 2009; 2009:979258. [PMID: 19884985 PMCID: PMC2768824 DOI: 10.1155/2009/979258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2009] [Revised: 07/13/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The precise pathomechanisms of human autoimmune diseases are still poorly understood. However, a deepened understanding of these is urgently needed to improve disease prevention and early detection and guide more specific treatment approaches. In recent years, many new genes and signalling pathways involved in autoimmunity with often overlapping patterns between different disease entities have been detected. Major contributions were made by experiments using DNA microarray technology, which has been used for the analysis of gene expression patterns in chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, among which were rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, systemic sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and type-1 diabetes. In systemic lupus erythematosus, a so-called interferon signature has been identified. In psoriasis, researchers found a particular immune signalling cluster. Moreover the identification of a new subset of inflammatory T cells, so-called Th17 T cells, secreting interleukin (IL)-17 as one of their major cytokines and the identification of the IL-23/IL-17 axis of inflammation regulation, have significantly improved our understanding of autoimmune diseases. Since a plethora of new treatment approaches using antibodies or small molecule inhibitors specifically targeting cytokines, cellular receptors, or signalling mechanisms has emerged in recent years, more individualized treatment for affected patients may be within reach in the future.
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Diez M, Abdelmagid N, Harnesk K, Ström M, Lidman O, Swanberg M, Lindblom R, Al-Nimer F, Jagodic M, Olsson T, Piehl F. Identification of gene regions regulating inflammatory microglial response in the rat CNS after nerve injury. J Neuroimmunol 2009; 212:82-92. [PMID: 19525015 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2009] [Revised: 05/01/2009] [Accepted: 05/01/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Local CNS inflammation takes place in many neurological disorders and is important for autoimmune neuroinflammation. Microglial activation is strain-dependent in rats and differential MHC class II expression is influenced by variations in the Mhc2ta gene. Despite sharing Mhc2ta and MHC class II alleles, BN and LEW.1N rats differ in MHC class II expression after ventral root avulsion (VRA). We studied MHC class II expression and glial activation markers in BN rats after VRA. Our results demonstrate that MHC class II expression originates from a subpopulation of IBA1(+), ED1(-), and ED2(-) microglia. We subsequently performed a genome-wide linkage scan in an F2(BNxLEW.1N) population, to investigate gene regions regulating this inflammatory response. Alongside MHC class II, we studied the expression of MHC class I, co-stimulatory molecules, complement components, microglial markers and Il1b. MHC class II and other transcripts were commonly regulated by gene regions on chromosomes 1 and 7. Furthermore, a common region on chromosome 10 regulated expression of complement and co-stimulatory molecules, while a region on chromosome 11 regulated MHC class I. We also detected epistatic interactions in the regulation of the inflammatory process. These results reveal the complex regulation of CNS inflammation by several gene regions, which may have relevance for disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Diez
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Neuroimmunology Unit, Karolinska Institutet, S171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Piehl F, Olsson T. Inflammation and susceptibility to neurodegeneration: The use of unbiased genetics to decipher critical regulatory pathways. Neuroscience 2009; 158:1143-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2008] [Revised: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Johannesson M, Lopez-Aumatell R, Stridh P, Diez M, Tuncel J, Blázquez G, Martinez-Membrives E, Cañete T, Vicens-Costa E, Graham D, Copley RR, Hernandez-Pliego P, Beyeen AD, Öckinger J, Fernández-Santamaría C, Gulko PS, Brenner M, Tobeña A, Guitart-Masip M, Giménez-Llort L, Dominiczak A, Holmdahl R, Gauguier D, Olsson T, Mott R, Valdar W, Redei EE, Fernández-Teruel A, Flint J. A resource for the simultaneous high-resolution mapping of multiple quantitative trait loci in rats: the NIH heterogeneous stock. Genes Dev 2009; 19:150-8. [PMID: 18971309 PMCID: PMC2612958 DOI: 10.1101/gr.081497.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Accepted: 10/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) is a key tool for the study of medicine and pharmacology for human health. A large database of phenotypes for integrated fields such as cardiovascular, neuroscience, and exercise physiology exists in the literature. However, the molecular characterization of the genetic loci that give rise to variation in these traits has proven to be difficult. Here we show how one obstacle to progress, the fine-mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL), can be overcome by using an outbred population of rats. By use of a genetically heterogeneous stock of rats, we map a locus contributing to variation in a fear-related measure (two-way active avoidance in the shuttle box) to a region on chromosome 5 containing nine genes. By establishing a protocol measuring multiple phenotypes including immunology, neuroinflammation, and hematology, as well as cardiovascular, metabolic, and behavioral traits, we establish the rat HS as a new resource for the fine-mapping of QTLs contributing to variation in complex traits of biomedical relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Regina Lopez-Aumatell
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pernilla Stridh
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet CMM, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Margarita Diez
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet CMM, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jonatan Tuncel
- Section for Medical Inflammation Research, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gloria Blázquez
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Martinez-Membrives
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Toni Cañete
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elia Vicens-Costa
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Delyth Graham
- BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Richard R. Copley
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | | | - Amennai D. Beyeen
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet CMM, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johan Öckinger
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet CMM, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Percio S. Gulko
- Laboratory of Experimental Rheumatology, Center for Genomics and Human Genetics, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, New York 11030, USA
| | - Max Brenner
- Laboratory of Experimental Rheumatology, Center for Genomics and Human Genetics, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, New York 11030, USA
| | - Adolf Tobeña
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Guitart-Masip
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lydia Giménez-Llort
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Dominiczak
- BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Rikard Holmdahl
- Section for Medical Inflammation Research, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Dominique Gauguier
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Tomas Olsson
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet CMM, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Richard Mott
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - William Valdar
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
| | - Eva E. Redei
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, The Asher Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Alberto Fernández-Teruel
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry & Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jonathan Flint
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
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HLA-DRB1*15 allele influences the later course of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Genes Immun 2008; 9:570-4. [DOI: 10.1038/gene.2008.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Egesten A, Brandt L, Olsson T, Granath F, Inghammar M, Löfdahl CG, Ekbom A. Increased Prevalence of Multiple Sclerosis Among COPD Patients and Their First-Degree Relatives: A Population-based Study. Lung 2008; 186:173-178. [DOI: 10.1007/s00408-008-9081-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2007] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Kristjansdottir G, Sandling JK, Bonetti A, Roos IM, Milani L, Wang C, Gustafsdottir SM, Sigurdsson S, Lundmark A, Tienari PJ, Koivisto K, Elovaara I, Pirttilä T, Reunanen M, Peltonen L, Saarela J, Hillert J, Olsson T, Landegren U, Alcina A, Fernández O, Leyva L, Guerrero M, Lucas M, Izquierdo G, Matesanz F, Syvänen AC. Interferon regulatory factor 5 (IRF5) gene variants are associated with multiple sclerosis in three distinct populations. J Med Genet 2008; 45:362-9. [PMID: 18285424 PMCID: PMC2564860 DOI: 10.1136/jmg.2007.055012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background: IRF5 is a transcription factor involved both in the type I interferon and the toll-like receptor signalling pathways. Previously, IRF5 has been found to be associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. Here we investigated whether polymorphisms in the IRF5 gene would be associated with yet another disease with features of autoimmunity, multiple sclerosis (MS). Methods: We genotyped nine single nucleotide polymorphisms and one insertion-deletion polymorphism in the IRF5 gene in a collection of 2337 patients with MS and 2813 controls from three populations: two case–control cohorts from Spain and Sweden, and a set of MS trio families from Finland. Results: Two single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) (rs4728142, rs3807306), and a 5 bp insertion-deletion polymorphism located in the promoter and first intron of the IRF5 gene, showed association signals with values of p<0.001 when the data from all cohorts were combined. The predisposing alleles were present on the same common haplotype in all populations. Using electrophoretic mobility shift assays we observed allele specific differences in protein binding for the SNP rs4728142 and the 5 bp indel, and by a proximity ligation assay we demonstrated increased binding of the transcription factor SP1 to the risk allele of the 5 bp indel. Conclusion: These findings add IRF5 to the short list of genes shown to be associated with MS in more than one population. Our study adds to the evidence that there might be genes or pathways that are common in multiple autoimmune diseases, and that the type I interferon system is likely to be involved in the development of these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kristjansdottir
- Molecular Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
During the last few years, the concept of multiple sclerosis (MS) as a pure inflammatory disease mediated by myelin reactive T cells has been challenged. Neither the specificity nor the mechanisms triggering or perpetuating the immune response are understood. Genetic studies have so far not identified therapeutic targets outside the HLA complex, but epidemiological and immunological studies have suggested putative pathogenetic factors which may be important in therapy or prevention, including the Epstein-Barr virus and vitamin D. Advances in the treatment of MS have been reached by manipulating the immune response where the pathogenesis of MS intersects experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, most recently by blocking T-cell migration through the blood-brain barrier. Antigen-specific approaches are effective in experimental models driven by a focused immune response against defined autoantigens, but MS may not fit into this concept. Novel candidate autoantigens which are not constitutively expressed in the brain, such as protein alpha-B crystallin or IgG V-region idiotopes, as well as evidence of pathogenetic heterogeneity and complexity, suggest that treating MS by tolerizing the immune system against an universal MS antigen may be a fata morgana. Further characterization of MS subtypes may lead to individualized treatment. However, shared immunological features, such as intrathecal production of oligoclonal IgG, suggest that potential therapeutic targets may be shared by most MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Holmøy
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Rikshospitalet-Radiumhospitalet Medical Center, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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Niino M, Fukazawa T, Kikuchi S, Sasaki H. Recent advances in genetic analysis of multiple sclerosis: genetic associations and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Neurother 2007; 7:1175-88. [PMID: 17868016 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.7.9.1175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have confirmed that genetic factors are a key component in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and that those determining MS susceptibility have been extensively studied. Many papers have been published regarding the heritable differences useful in genetic studies; these include variations in DNA, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms, microsatellites and insertion/deletion polymorphisms. However, to date, among other regions, HLA is the only region confirmed to possess genes that determine MS susceptibility. In this article, we review the progress during the last 5 years in the studies on the susceptibility genes and the pharmacogenetics of MS. Newer techniques and methods of analysis will hopefully result in better screening of individuals who are at highest risk and novel treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Niino
- Department of Neurology, Hokkaido University Hospital, Kita-14, Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8648, Japan.
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