Joint-action of antifouling substances in copper-free paints

Exploring Antifouling Activity of Biosurfactants Producing Marine Bacteria Isolated from Gulf of California

Biofouling causes major problems and economic losses to marine and shipping industries. In the search for new antifouling agents, marine bacteria with biosurfactants production capability can be an excellent option, due to the amphipathic surface-active characteristic that confers antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antifouling activity of biosurfactants producing marine bacteria from the Gulf of California. The cell free culture supernatant (CFCS) of Bacillus niabensis (S-69), Ralstonia sp. (S-74) (isolated from marine sediment) and of B. niabensis (My-30) (bacteria associated to the sponge Mycale ramulosa) were screened for production of biosurfactants (using hemolysis and drop collapse test, oil displacement and emulsifying activity). The toxicity and antifouling activity were evaluated against biofoulers (bacteria forming biofilm and macrofoulers) both in laboratory and field assays. The results indicate that all bacteria were biosurfactant producers, but the higher capability was shown by B. niabensis (My-30) with high emulsifying properties (E24) of 71%. The CFCS showed moderate toxicity but were considered non-toxic against Artemia franciscana at low concentrations. In the antifouling assay, the CFCS of both strains of B. niabensis showed the best results for the reduction of the biofilm formation (up 50%) against all Gram-positive bacteria and most Gram-negative bacteria with low concentrations. In the field assay, the CFCS of B. niabensis (My-30) led to the reduction of 30% of biofouling compared to the control. The results indicate that the biosurfactant produced by B. niabensis (My-30) has promising antifouling activity.

Additives for Efficient Biodegradable Antifouling Paints

The evolution of regulations concerning biocidal products aims to increase protection of the environment (e.g., EU Regulation No 528/2012) and requires the development of new non-toxic anti-fouling (AF) systems. The development of these formulations implies the use of ingredients (polymers, active substances, additives) that are devoid of toxicity towards marine environments. In this context, the use of erodable antifouling paints based on biodegradable polymer and authorized biocides responds to this problem. However, the efficiency of paints could be improved by the use of specific additives. For this purpose, three additives acting as surface modifiers were studied (Tween 80, Span 85 and PEG-silane). Their effects on parameters involved in antifouling efficiency as hydrophobicity, hydration and copper release were studied. Results showed that the addition of 3% of additives modulated hydrophobicity and hydration without an increase of copper release and significantly reduced microfouling development. Efficient paints based on biodegradable polymer and with no organic biocide could be obtained by mixing copper thiocyanate and additives.

Silicone/Ag@SiO2core–shell nanocomposite as a self-cleaning antifouling coating material

The effects of Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanofiller dispersion and micro-nano binary structure on the self-cleaning and fouling release (FR) in the modelled silicone nano-paints were studied. An ultrahydrophobic polydimethylsiloxane/Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanocomposite was prepared as an antifouling coating material. Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanospheres with 60 nm average size and a preferential {111} growth direction were prepared via a facile solvothermal and a modified Stöber methods with a controlled shell thickness. Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanofillers were inserted in the silicone composite surface via solution casting technique. A simple hydrosilation curing mechanism was used to cure the surface coating. Different concentrations of nanofillers were incorporated in the PDMS matrix for studying the structure–property relationship. Water contact angle (WCA) and surface free energy determinations as well as atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscope were used to investigate the surface self-cleaning properties of the nanocomposites. Mechanical and physical properties were assessed as durability parameters. A comparable study was carried out between silicone/spherical Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanocomposites and other commercial FR coatings. Selected micro-foulants were used for biological and antifouling assessments up to 28 days. Well-distributed Ag@SiO₂ core–shell (0.5 wt%) exhibited the preferable self-cleaning with WCA of 156° and surface free energy of 11.15 mN m⁻¹.

The effects of Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanofiller dispersion and micro-nano binary structure on the fouling release of silicone paints were studied. An ultrahydrophobic PDMS/Ag@SiO₂ core–shell nanocomposite was prepared as an antifouling coating material.

Review on Molecular Mechanisms of Antifouling Compounds: An Update since 2012

Better understanding of the mechanisms of antifouling compounds is recognized to be of high value in establishing sensitive biomarkers, allowing the targeted optimization of antifouling compounds and guaranteeing environmental safety. Despite vigorous efforts to find new antifouling compounds, information about the mechanisms of antifouling is still scarce. This review summarizes the progress into understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying antifouling activity since 2012. Non-toxic mechanisms aimed at specific targets, including inhibitors of transmembrane transport, quorum sensing inhibitors, neurotransmission blockers, adhesive production/release inhibitors and enzyme/protein inhibitors, are put forward for natural antifouling products or shelf-stable chemicals. Several molecular targets show good potential for use as biomarkers in future mechanistic screening, such as acetylcholine esterase for neurotransmission, phenoloxidase/tyrosinase for the formation of adhesive plaques, N-acyl homoserine lactone for quorum sensing and intracellular Ca²⁺ levels as second messenger. The studies on overall responses to challenges by antifoulants can be categorized as general targets, including protein expression/metabolic activity regulators, oxidative stress inducers, neurotransmission blockers, surface modifiers, biofilm inhibitors, adhesive production/release inhibitors and toxic killing. Given the current situation and the knowledge gaps regarding the development of alternative antifoulants, a basic workflow is proposed that covers the indispensable steps, including preliminary mechanism- or bioassay-guided screening, evaluation of environmental risks, field antifouling performance, clarification of antifouling mechanisms and the establishment of sensitive biomarkers, which are combined to construct a positive feedback loop.

Antifouling coatings based on covalently cross-linked agarose film via thermal azide-alkyne cycloaddition

Coatings based on thin films of agarose-poly(ethylene glycol) (Agr-PEG) cross-linked systems are developed as environmentally-friendly and fouling-resistant marine coatings. The Agr-PEG cross-linked systems were prepared via thermal azide-alkyne cycloaddition (AAC) using azido-functionalized Agr (AgrAz) and activated alkynyl-containing poly(2-propiolamidoethyl methacrylate-co-poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate) P(PEMA-co-PEGMEMA) random copolymers as the precursors. The Agr-PEG cross-linked systems were further deposited onto a SS surface, pre-functionalized with an alkynyl-containing biomimetic anchor, dopamine propiolamide, to form a thin film after thermal treatment. The thin film-coated SS surfaces can effectively reduce the adhesion of marine algae and the settlement of barnacle cyprids. Upon covalent cross-linking, the covalently cross-linked Agr-PEG films coated SS surfaces exhibit good stability in flowing artificial seawater, and enhanced resistance to the settlement of barnacle cyprids, in comparison to that of the surfaces coated with physically cross-linked AgrAz films.

Tailored design of Cu2O nanocube/silicone composites as efficient foul-release coatings

Environmental concerns about the use of toxic antifoulants have increased the demand to develop novel, environmentally-friendly antifouling materials.