Nanocapsules based on mPEGylated artesunate prodrug and its cytotoxicity

Exploring pectin-casein micelles as novel carriers for oral drug delivery of artesunate in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus

The oral route of administration is considered the optimal choice for treating chronic diseases due to its convenience and non-invasiveness, which can help prevent physical and mental harm to patients undergoing long-term treatment. However, challenges such as safety, gastrointestinal stability, and bioavailability of oral drugs often limit their effectiveness. Natural biomacromolecule micelles, known for their safety, stability, biocompatibility, and diverse functions, have emerged as promising carriers for oral treatment of chronic diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with fat-soluble drugs. This study introduces an innovative approach by developing an oral delivery system using chemically synthesized natural biomacromolecules to load artesunate for treating SLE. By synthesizing amphiphilic polymer micelles from pectin and casein through a carbodiimide reaction, a more stable structure is achieved. The hydrophobic core of these micelles encapsulates artesunate, resulting in the formation of an oral delivery system (PC-AS) with several advantages, including high drug loading and encapsulation efficiency, small particle size, negative potential, strong stability in the gastrointestinal tract, low toxicity and side effects, strong adhesion in the small intestine, and high bioavailability. These advantages facilitate efficient absorption of artesunate in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to improved bioavailability and effective alleviation of SLE-like symptoms in MRL/lpr mice. By utilizing chemically synthesized natural macromolecular micelles for delivering artesunate in the treatment of SLE, this study overcomes the oral barriers associated with the original drug and presents a novel solution for the long-term oral treatment of chronic diseases.

Bioanalytical strategies to evaluate cisplatin nanodelivery systems: From synthesis to incorporation in individual cells and biological response

Cisplatin metallodrugs have been widely used in the treatment of multiple cancers over the last years. Nevertheless, its limited effectiveness, development of acquired drug resistances, and toxic effects decrease nowadays their application in clinical settings. Aiming at improving their features, investigations have been oriented towards the coupling of cisplatin to nanocarriers, like liposomes or inorganic nanoparticles. Moreover, these systems can be further developed to allow targeted co-delivery of drugs. In this review, we describe the major nanosystems and the optimal analytical strategies for their assessment. Finally, we describe the main biological effects of these metallodrug conjugates and the available approaches for their study.

Further Improvement Based on Traditional Nanocapsule Preparation Methods: A Review

Nanocapsule preparation technology, as an emerging technology with great development prospects, has uniqueness and superiority in various industries. In this paper, the preparation technology of nanocapsules was systematically divided into three categories: physical methods, chemical methods, and physicochemical methods. The technological innovation of different methods in recent years was reviewed, and the mechanisms of nanocapsules prepared via emulsion polymerization, interface polymerization, layer-by-layer self-assembly technology, nanoprecipitation, supercritical fluid, and nano spray drying was summarized in detail. Different from previous reviews, the renewal iteration of core-shell structural materials was highlighted, and relevant illustrations of their representative and latest research results were reviewed. With the continuous progress of nanocapsule technology, especially the continuous development of new wall materials and catalysts, new preparation technology, and new production equipment, nanocapsule technology will be used more widely in medicine, food, cosmetics, pesticides, petroleum products, and many other fields.

Artemisinin-Type Drugs in Tumor Cell Death: Mechanisms, Combination Treatment with Biologics and Nanoparticle Delivery

Artemisinin, the most famous anti-malaria drug initially extracted from Artemisia annua L., also exhibits anti-tumor properties in vivo and in vitro. To improve its solubility and bioavailability, multiple derivatives have been synthesized. However, to reveal the anti-tumor mechanism and improve the efficacy of these artemisinin-type drugs, studies have been conducted in recent years. In this review, we first provide an overview of the effect of artemisinin-type drugs on the regulated cell death pathways, which may uncover novel therapeutic approaches. Then, to overcome the shortcomings of artemisinin-type drugs, we summarize the recent advances in two different therapeutic approaches, namely the combination therapy with biologics influencing regulated cell death, and the use of nanocarriers as drug delivery systems. For the former approach, we discuss the superiority of combination treatments compared to monotherapy in tumor cells based on their effects on regulated cell death. For the latter approach, we give a systematic overview of nanocarrier design principles used to deliver artemisinin-type drugs, including inorganic-based nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, polymer-based nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and niosomes. Both approaches have yielded promising findings in vitro and in vivo, providing a strong scientific basis for further study and upcoming clinical trials.

Murine pharmacokinetics and antimalarial pharmacodynamics of dihydroartemisinin trimer self-assembled nanoparticles

Currently, conjugation of artemisinin-derived dimers, trimers, and tetramers is a viable strategy for developing new effective antimalarial candidates. Furthermore, nanotechnology is an effective means to achieve intravenous administration of hydrophobic drugs. In this paper, an ester-linked dihydroartemisinin trimer (DHA₃) was synthesized and further prepared as self-assembled nanoparticles (DHA₃NPs) by a one-step nanoprecipitation method. The pharmacokinetics and antimalarial pharmacodynamics of DHA₃NPs were studied in rats and mice infected with Plasmodium yoelii BY265 (PyBY265). DHA₃NPs had a regular spherical shape with a uniform size distribution of 140.27 ± 3.59 nm, entrapment efficiency (EE) of 99.63 ± 0.17%, and drug loading efficiency (DL) of 79.62 ± 0.11%. The in vitro release characterization revealed that DHA₃NPs were easily hydrolysed into DHA in an esterase environment. The pharmacokinetics study demonstrated that the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC_0-t) of DHA in DHA₃NPs group was 2070.52 ± 578.76 h×ng×mL^-1, which was higher than that of DHA and artesunate (AS) control groups (AUC_0-t values of 724.18 ± 94.32 and 448.40 ± 94.45 h×ng×mL^-1, respectively) (P < 0.05). The antimalarial pharmacodynamics in vivo suggested that DHA₃NP_S (ED₉₀ 7.82 ± 1.16 μmol×(kg×day)^-1) had a superior antimalarial effect compared with that of control groups (ED₉₀ values of 14.68 ± 0.98 (DHA) and 14.34 ± 1.96 (AS) μmol×(kg×day)^-1) (P < 0.05). In addition, DHA₃NP_S reduced the recurrence ratio and improved the cure ratio and survival time. In summary, DHA₃NPs exhibited promising pharmacokinetic characteristics and antimalarial pharmacodynamics in vivo.

Artemisinins as Anticancer Drugs: Novel Therapeutic Approaches, Molecular Mechanisms, and Clinical Trials

Artemisinin and its derivatives have shown broad-spectrum antitumor activities in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, outcomes from a limited number of clinical trials provide encouraging evidence for their excellent antitumor activities. However, some problems such as poor solubility, toxicity and controversial mechanisms of action hamper their use as effective antitumor agents in the clinic. In order to accelerate the use of ARTs in the clinic, researchers have recently developed novel therapeutic approaches including developing novel derivatives, manufacturing novel nano-formulations, and combining ARTs with other drugs for cancer therapy. The related mechanisms of action were explored. This review describes ARTs used to induce non-apoptotic cell death containing oncosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. Moreover, it highlights the ARTs-caused effects on cancer metabolism, immunosuppression and cancer stem cells and discusses clinical trials of ARTs used to treat cancer. The review provides additional insight into the molecular mechanism of action of ARTs and their considerable clinical potential.

Poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based artesunate nanoparticles: formulation, antimalarial and toxicity assessments

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to formulate polymer-based artesunate nanoparticles for malaria treatment.

METHODS

Artesunate was loaded with poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) by solvent evaporation from an oil-in-water single emulsion. Nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry analyses. In vivo antimalarial studies at 4 mg/kg were performed on Swiss male albino mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. Hematological and hepatic toxicity assays were performed. In vitro cytotoxicity of free and encapsulated artesunate (Art-PLGA) to cell line RAW 264.7 was determined at concentrations of 7.8-1000 µg/ml.

RESULTS

The particle size of the formulated drug was (329.3±21.7) nm and the entrapment efficiency was (38.4±10.1)%. Art-PLGA nanoparticles showed higher parasite suppression (62.6%) compared to free artesunate (58.2%, P<0.05). Platelet counts were significantly higher in controls (305 000.00±148 492.40) than in mice treated with free artesunate (139 500.00±20 506.10) or Art-PLGA (163 500.00±3535.53) (P<0.05). There was no sign of hepatic toxicity following use of the tested drugs. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of Art-PLGA (468.0 µg/ml) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of free artesunate (7.3 µg/ml) in the in vitro cytotoxicity assay.

CONCLUSIONS

A simple treatment of PLGA-entrapped artesunate nanoparticles with dual advantages of low toxicity and better antiplasmodial efficacy has been developed.

Curcumin-Artesunate Based Polymeric Nanoparticle; Antiplasmodial and Toxicological Evaluation in Murine Model

Mainstay chemotherapy for malaria is often faced with the problem of instability and poor bio-distribution thus resulting in impaired pharmacokinetics. Nanomedicine has been acclaimed for its success in drug delivery and improved efficacy. The aim of the study was to assess the antiplasmodial efficacy and safety of curcumin-artesunate co-entrapped nanoparticle in mice model. Curcumin (C) and artesunate (A) were loaded in poly (d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) using solvent evaporation from oil-in-water single emulsion method. The nanoparticle formed was characterized for size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. The in vitro release of the drug was also determined. The in vivo antiplasmodial activity of CA-PLGA nanoparticle was tested on Plasmodium berghei at 5 and 10 mg/kg doses. The drug efficacy was determined at day 5 and 8. Hematological and hepatic toxicity assays were performed. The mean particle size of drug entrapped PLGA-nanoformulation was 251.1 ± 12.6 nm. The drug entrapment efficiency was 22.3 ± 0.4%. There was a sustained drug release from PLGA for 7 days. The percentage suppression of P. berghei was consistently significantly higher in CA-PLGA 5 mg/kg at day 5 (79.0%) and day 8 (72.5%) than the corresponding values 65.3 and 64.2% in the positive control group (p < 0.05). Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) was significantly lower in mice exposed to 5 mg/kg (42.0 ± 0.0 U/L) and 10 mg/kg (39.5 ± 3.5 U/L) nanotized CA-PLGA compared with the negative control (45.0 ± 4.0 U/L) (p < 0.05). Although alanine aminotransferase (ALT) was lower in nanotized CA-PLGA, the variation was not significant compared with the negative control (p > 0.05). No significant difference in the mean values of the different blood parameters in all exposed groups with the exception of platelets which were significantly higher in the positive control group. A simple method of dual entrapment of curcumin and artesunate with better antiplasmodial efficacy and low toxicity has been synthesized.

Design of Drug Delivery Systems Containing Artemisinin and Its Derivatives

Artemisinin and its derivatives have been reported to be experimentally effective for the treatment of highly aggressive cancers without developing drug resistance, they are useful for the treatment of malaria, other protozoal infections and they exhibit antiviral activity. However, they are limited pharmacologically by their poor bioavailability, short half-life in vivo, poor water solubility and long term usage results in toxicity. They are also expensive for the treatment of malaria when compared to other antimalarials. In order to enhance their therapeutic efficacy, they are incorporated onto different drug delivery systems, thus yielding improved biological outcomes. This review article is focused on the currently synthesized derivatives of artemisinin and different delivery systems used for the incorporation of artemisinin and its derivatives.

Development and evaluation of anti-malarial bio-conjugates: artesunate-loaded nanoerythrosomes

Biodegradable cellular carrier has desired properties for achieving effective long-term controlled release of drugs having short half life. To reduce the undesired effects of drug, advanced drug delivery systems are needed which are based on specific cell targeting module. Artesunate (ART) conjugation on nanoerythrosomes (NE) can have controlled delivery to avoid drug leakage, increase the stability, and reduce cost and toxicities. In this study nanosized lipoprotein membrane vesicles bearing ART were prepared by extrusion method. Developed ART-NE conjugate formulations were optimized on the basis of vesicle morphology, size and size distribution, polydispersity index, integrity of membrane, loaded drug concentration, drug leakage, effect of temperature and viscosity, syringeability, in vitro release profile and in vivo plasma concentration estimation studies. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy reveals that lipid chain order of RBCs are insignificantly affected in moderate conditions after ART loading. The formulated ART-NE carrier revealed non aggregated, uniformly sized particles with smooth surfaces. The maximum drug loading was found to be 25.20 ± 1.3 μg/ml. ART-NE formulation was best fit for zero order kinetics and was found to be capable of controlled release of drug for 8 hrs. ART-NE formulation showed good redispersibility with desirable properties for parenteral administration. Formulation was stable when subjected to stress by centrifugal force of 7500 rpm and could bear turbulence shock of 15 passes from hypodermic needle of size 23 gauges. The ART-NE formulation administered intravenously showed higher plasma concentration compared to free drug signifying not only controlled release but higher rate of in vivo release. The developed formulation exhibited zero order release profile as per kinetic study analysis suggesting the suitability of carrier for the sustained and targeted delivery of ART. The developed ART-NE drug delivery system offers improved pharmacokinetic profile with assurance of increased therapeutic efficacy.

Polymer-Based Prodrugs: Improving Tumor Targeting and the Solubility of Small Molecule Drugs in Cancer Therapy

The majority of anticancer drugs have poor aqueous solubility, produce adverse effects in healthy tissue, and thus impose major limitations on both clinical efficacy and therapeutic safety of cancer chemotherapy. To help circumvent problems associated with solubility, most cancer drugs are now formulated with co-solubilizers. However, these agents often also introduce severe side effects, thereby restricting effective treatment and patient quality of life. A promising approach to addressing problems in anticancer drug solubility and selectivity is their conjugation with polymeric carriers to form polymer-based prodrugs. These polymer-based prodrugs are macromolecular carriers, designed to increase the aqueous solubility of antitumor drugs, can enhance bioavailability. Additionally, polymer-based prodrugs approach exploits unique features of tumor physiology to passively facilitate intratumoral accumulation, and so improve chemodrug pharmacokinetics and pharmacological properties. This review introduces basic concepts of polymer-based prodrugs, provides an overview of currently emerging synthetic, natural, and genetically engineered polymers that now deliver anticancer drugs in preclinical or clinical trials, and highlights their major anticipated applications in anticancer therapies.

Development and Evaluation of Artesunate-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Lipid Nanocapsule as a Potential Drug Delivery System Against Breast Cancer

Artesunate (ART)--a well-known hydrophobic anti-malarial agent was incorporated in a polymer-lipid hybrid nanocolloidal system for anti-cancer therapeutic. The lipid negatively charged nanoemulsion was formulated by modified hot homogenization method then covered with positively charged chitosan via electrostatic interaction to obtain chitosan-coated lipid nanocapsule (ART-CLN). Physical properties of the system were characterized in terms of size, charge, morphology, drug loading capacity, and physical state. In addition, anti-cancer activities were confirmed by conducting MTT assay for ART and ART-CLN on different cancer cell lines. Obtained ART-CLN after coating chitosan revealed positive charge (13.2 ± 0.87 mV), small particle size (160.9 ± 3.5 nm), and spherical shape. High drug entrapment efficiency (95.49 ± 1.13%) and sustained release pattern were observed. Moreover, the good cellular uptake was recorded by flow cytometry as well as confocal image. Finally, ART-CLN exhibited stronger anti-cancer activity than free ART on breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231). These results suggested that by loading ART into lipid core of polymer-lipid hybrid carrier, the activity and physical stability of ART can be significantly increased for cancer chemotherapy.