Nanoemulsion strategy for olmesartan medoxomil improves oral absorption and extended antihypertensive activity in hypertensive rats

Evaluation of cilnidipine-loaded self-micro-emulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) by quantification of comparative pharmacokinetic parameters using validated LC-ESI-MS/MS bioanalytical method and pharmacodynamic assessment

OBJECTIVE

Regardless of having desired therapeutic properties many of the recently approved drugs are removed from the developmental pipeline for their clinical use due to low solubility and permeability. Conventional dosage forms are found relatively unsuitable for achieving desired pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics profiles. Cilnidipine is 1,4 dihydropyridine derivative calcium channel blocker used for the treatment of hypertension.

METHOD

The aim and objective of this study was to develop a precise and significant method in LC-MS/MS for quantification of pharmacokinetic parameters of a cilnidipine-loaded self-micro-emulsifying drug delivery system in rat plasma and simultaneously assessed pharmacodynamic characters in comparison with the marketed cilnidipine tablet. Another potential aim of this study is to reduce the dose of the drug in order to counter the dose-dependent toxicities related to chronic use. In the present study, the parent and product ion of cilnidipine was m/z 491.3\237.1.

RESULT

The plasma was extracted by protein precipitation technique. The calibration standard concentrations were 1.875, 3.75, 7.50, 15.00, 30.00, 60.00ng/mL and LLOQ, low-quality control, middle-quality control and high-quality control were 1.87, 5.62, 22.50, 45.00ng/mL, respectively. The mobile phase composition was 0.1% formic acid in Milli Q water with 10mM Ammonium acetate as an aqueous solvent and 0.1% formic acid in methanol as an organic solvent. Following oral administration of optimized formulation Cmax (peak plasma concentration) was achieved 21.02±3.17ng/mL at 0.866±0.11h (Tmax), whereas in the case of marketed tablet Cmax (peak plasma concentration) was achieved 10.16±0.89ng/mL at 0.93±0.11h (Tmax).

DISCUSSION

The in-vivo characterizations of the optimized SMEDDS showed significantly better pharmacokinetic parameters in Wistar rats and showed almost 2.4 times enhanced relative bioavailability as compared to the marketed tablet of cilnidipine which was observed to be correlating to our findings with noninvasive blood pressure parameter of Wistar rats.

Antifungal Activity of Piperine-based Nanoemulsion Against Candida spp. via In Vitro Broth Microdilution Assay

Candidemia leaves a trail of approximately 750,000 cases yearly, with a morbidity rate of up to 30%. While Candida albicans still ranks as the most predominantly isolated Candida species, C. glabrata comes in second, with a death rate of 40-50%. Although infections by Candida spp are commonly treated with azoles, the side effects and rise in resistance against it has significantly limited its clinical usage. The current study aims to address the insolubility of piperine and provide an alternative treatment to Candida infection by formulating a stable piperine-loaded O/W nanoemulsion, comprised of Cremophor RH40, Transcutol HP and Capryol 90 as surfactant, co-surfactant, and oil, respectively. Characterization with zetasizer showed the droplet size, polydispersity (PDI) and zetapotential value of the nanoemulsion to be 24.37 nm, 0.453 and -21.10 mV, respectively, with no observable physical changes such as phase separation from thermostability tests. FTIR peaks confirms presence of piperine within the nanoemulsion and TEM imaging visualized the droplet shape and further confirms the droplet size range of 20-24 nm. The MIC90 value of the piperine-loaded nanoemulsion determined with in vitro broth microdilution assay was approximately 20-50% lower than that of the pure piperine in DMSO, at a range of 0.8-2.0 mg/mL across all Candida spp. tested. Overall, the study showed that piperine can be formulated into a stable nanoemulsion, which significantly enhances its antifungal activity compared to piperine in DMSO.

Lipid Horizons: Recent Advances and Future Prospects in LBDDS for Oral Administration of Antihypertensive Agents

The lipid-based drug delivery system (LBDDS) is a well-established technique that is anticipated to bring about comprehensive transformations in the pharmaceutical field, impacting the management and administration of drugs, as well as treatment and diagnosis. Various LBDDSs verified to be an efficacious mechanism for monitoring hypertension systems are SEDDS (self-nano emulsifying drug delivery), nanoemulsion, microemulsions, vesicular systems (transferosomes and liposomes), and solid lipid nanoparticles. LBDDSs overcome the shortcomings that are associated with antihypertensive agents because around fifty percent of the antihypertensive agents experience a few drawbacks including short half-life because of hepatic first-pass metabolism, poor aqueous solubility, low permeation rate, and undesirable side effects. This review emphasizes antihypertensive agents that were encapsulated into the lipid carrier to improve their poor oral bioavailability. Incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as nanotechnology and targeted drug delivery, LBDDS holds promise in addressing the multifactorial nature of hypertension. By fine-tuning drug release profiles and enhancing drug uptake at specific sites, LBDDS can potentially target renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system components, sympathetic nervous system pathways, and endothelial dysfunction, all of which play crucial roles in hypertension pathophysiology. The future of hypertension management using LBDDS is promising, with ongoing reviews focusing on precision medicine approaches, improved biocompatibility, and reduced toxicity. As we delve deeper into understanding the intricate mechanisms underlying hypertension, LBDDS offers a pathway to develop next-generation antihypertensive therapies that are safer, more effective, and tailored to individual patient needs.

Potential molecular pathways of angiotensin receptor blockers in the brain toward cognitive improvement in dementia

The alarming rise of cognitive impairment and memory decline and limited effective solutions present a worldwide concern for dementia patients. The multivariant role of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in the brain offers strong evidence of a role for angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) in the management of memory impairment by modifying glutamate excitotoxicity, downregulating inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α, inhibiting kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT)-II, nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family and pyrin-domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes, boosting cholinergic activity, activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, countering cyclooxygenase (COX) and mitigating the hypoxic condition. The present work focuses on the intricate molecular mechanisms involved in brain-RAS, highlighting the role of ARBs, connecting links between evidence-based unexplored pathways and investigating probable biomarkers involved in dementia through supported preclinical and clinical literature.

Biomacromolecule-based nanocarrier strategies to deliver plant-derived bioactive components for cancer treatment: A recent review

The quest for safe chemotherapy has attracted researchers to explore anticancer potential of herbal medicines. Owing to upsurging evidence of herbal drug's beneficial effects, hopes are restored for augmenting survival rates in cancer patients. However, phytoconstituents confronted severe limitations in terms of poor absorption, low-stability, and low bioavailability. Along with toxicity issues associated with phytoconstituents, quality control and limited regulatory guidance also hinder the prevalence of herbal medicines for cancer therapy. Attempts are underway to exploit nanocarriers to circumvent the limitations of existing and new herbal drugs, where biological macromolecules (e.g., chitosan, hyaluronic acid, etc.) are established highly effective in fabricating nanocarriers and cancer targeting. Among the discussed nanocarriers, liposomes and micelles possess properties to cargo hydro- and lipophilic herbal constituents with surface modification for targeted delivery. Majorly, PEG, transferrin and folate are utilized for surface modification to improve bioavailability, circulation time and targetability. The dendrimer and carbon nanotubes responded in high-loading efficiency of phytoconstituent; whereas, SLN and nanoemulsions are suited carriers for lipophilic extracts. This review emphasized unveiling the latent potential of herbal drugs along with discussing on extended benefits of nanocarriers-based delivery of phytoconstituents for safe cancer therapy owing to enhanced clinical and preclinical outcomes without compromising safety.

Nanoparticle-Based Therapies in Hypertension

Nearly 1.4 billion people worldwide suffer from arterial hypertension, a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease which is now the leading cause of death. Despite numerous drugs designed to treat hypertension, only ≈14% of hypertensive individuals have their blood pressure under control. A critical factor negatively impacting the efficacy of available treatments is their poor bioavailability. This leads to increased dosing requirements which can result in more side effects, resulting in patient noncompliance. A recent solution to improve dosing and bioavailability issues has been to incorporate drugs into nanoparticle carriers, with over 50 nanodrugs currently on the market across all diseases, and another 51 currently in clinical trials. Given their ability to improve solubility and bioavailability, nanoparticles may offer significant advantages in the formulation of antihypertensives to overcome pharmacokinetic shortcomings. To date, however, no antihypertensive nanoformulations have been clinically approved. This review assesses in vivo study data from preclinical antihypertensive nanoformulation development and testing. Combined, the results of these studies suggest nanoformulation of antihypertensive drugs may be a promising solution to overcome the poor efficacy of currently available antihypertensives, and with further advances has the potential to open paths for new substances that have heretofore been clinically unrealistic due to poor bioavailability.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Extended-Release Delivery of Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs): A Comprehensive Review

There has been a significant shift in the perception of hypertension as an important contributor to the global disease burden. Approximately 6 % and 8 % of pregnancies are affected by hypertension, which can adversely affect the mother and the fetus. Furthermore, a hypertensive individual is at increased risk of developing kidney disease, arterial hardening, eye damage, and strokes. Using angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is widespread in treating hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and diabetic nephropathy. Despite this, some ARBs have limited use due to their poor oral bioavailability and water solubility. To tackle this, a variety of nanoparticle (NP)-based systems, such as polymeric NPs (i. e., dendrimers), polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid NPs (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), carbon-based nanocarriers, inorganic NPs, and nanocrystals, have been recently developed for efficient delivery of losartan, Valsartan (Val), Olmesartan (OLM), Telmisartan (TEL), Candesartan, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, and Azilsartan to target cells. This review article provides a literature-based comparison of the various classes of ARBs, their mechanisms of action, and an overview of the nanoformulations developed for ARB delivery and successfully applied to managing hypertension, diabetic complications, and other conditions.

Microneedle array patches for sustained delivery of fluphenazine: A micron scale approach for the management of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe chronic mental illness characterised by impaired emotional and cognitive functioning. To treat this condition, antipsychotics are available in limited dosage forms, mainly oral and injectable formulations. Although injectable antipsychotics were designed to enhance adherence, they are invasive, painful and require a healthcare professional to be administered. To overcome such administration issues, extensive research has been focused on developing transdermal antipsychotic formulations. In this work, three microneedle (MN) systems were developed to deliver fluphenazine (FLU) systemically. A decanoic prodrug of FLU called fluphenazine decanoate (FLUD) was used in two of the MN formulations due to its high lipophilicity. FLU-D was loaded into dissolving MNs and nanoemulsion (NE)-loaded MNs. The parent drug FLU was loaded into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-tipped MNs. All MN systems were characterised and evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The in vivo evaluation of the three developed MN systems showed their ability to deliver FLU into the systemic circulation, as the Cmax of FLU-D dissolving MNs was 36.11 ± 12.37 ng/ml. However, the Cmax of FLU-D NE loaded dissolving MNs was 12.92 ± 6.3 ng/ml and for FLU-PLGA tipped MNs was 21.57 ± 2.45 ng/ml. Compared to an intramuscular (IM) injection of FLU-D in sesame oil, the relative bioavailabilities were 26.96 %, 21.73 % and 42.45 % for FLU-D dissolving MNs, FLU-D NE dissolving MNs and FLU-PLGA tipped MNs, respectively. FLU plasma levels were maintained above the minimum human therapeutic limits for a week. Consequently, these various MN formulations are considered to be a viable options for the transdermal delivery of fluphenazine and its prodrug. The three MN systems developed offer patients a user-friendly, painless, and convenient long-acting delivery method for FLU. Reducing dosing frequency and using less invasive drug administration methods can enhance adherence and foster positive therapeutic outcomes. This study demonstrates the capability and adaptability of MNs technology to transport hydrophobic molecules from the skin to the systemic circulation.

Nanoparticles-induced potential toxicity on human health: Applications, toxicity mechanisms, and evaluation models

Nanoparticles (NPs) have become one of the most popular objects of scientific study during the past decades. However, despite wealth of study reports, still there is a gap, particularly in health toxicology studies, underlying mechanisms, and related evaluation models to deeply understanding the NPs risk effects. In this review, we first present a comprehensive landscape of the applications of NPs on health, especially addressing the role of NPs in medical diagnosis, therapy. Then, the toxicity of NPs on health systems is introduced. We describe in detail the effects of NPs on various systems, including respiratory, nervous, endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems, and the carcinogenicity of NPs. Furthermore, we unravels the underlying mechanisms of NPs including ROS accumulation, mitochondrial damage, inflammatory reaction, apoptosis, DNA damage, cell cycle, and epigenetic regulation. In addition, the classical study models such as cell lines and mice and the emerging models such as 3D organoids used for evaluating the toxicity or scientific study are both introduced. Overall, this review presents a critical summary and evaluation of the state of understanding of NPs, giving readers more better understanding of the NPs toxicology to remedy key gaps in knowledge and techniques.

Formulation and Characterization of a Novel Palm-Oil-Based α-Mangostin Nano-Emulsion (PO-AMNE) as an Antimicrobial Endodontic Irrigant: An In Vitro Study

Aim: To formulate and characterize a palm-oil-in-water-based α-Mangostin nano-emulsion (PO-AMNE) endodontic irrigant, in order to evaluate its antibacterial efficacy against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Candida albicans biofilms, as well as its capacity to remove smear layer. Methods: The solubility of α-Mangostin in various oils was determined and selected, surfactants and co-surfactants were used for the nano-emulsion trial. PO-AMNE was prepared and optimized. The MIC was performed, and the antimicrobial efficacy was estimated against biofilms. The optimized 0.2% PO-AMNE irrigant antimicrobial efficacy in a tooth model was done using colony-forming units. The treated teeth were processed by scanning electron microscopic examination for debris and smear layer removal. An Alamar Blue assay was used to evaluate cell viability. The optimization of the PO-AMNE irrigant was performed using Box–Behnken statistical design. Results: The optimized 0.2% PO-AMNE irrigant was found to have a particle size of 340.9 nm with 0.246 PDI of the dispersed droplets, and a zeta potential (mV) of −27.2 ± 0.7 mV. The MIC values showed that 0.2% PO-AMNE (1.22 ± 0.02) were comparable to 2% CHX (1.33 ± 0.01), and 3.25% NaOCl (2.2 ± 0.09) had the least inhibition for E. faecalis. NaOCl (3.25%) showed the maximum inhibition of S. epidermidis (0.26 ± 0.05), whereas 0.2% PO-AMNE (1.25 ± 0.0) was comparable to 2% CHX (1.86 ± 0.07). For C. albicans, 2% CHX (8.12 ± 0.12) showed the least inhibition as compared to 0.2% PO-AMNE (1.23 ± 0.02) and 3.25% NaOCl (0.59 ± 0.02). The 0.2% PO-AMNE irrigant was then evaluated for its antimicrobial efficacy against the three biofilms, using colony-forming units. The 0.2% PO-AMNE was comparable to both 3.25% NaOCl and 2% CHX in inhibiting the growth of biofilms. The 0.2% PO-AMNE and 17% EDTA eliminated the smear layer with the lowest mean scores (p < 0.001). Finally, 0.2% PO-AMNE was shown to be biocompatible when compared to 17% EDTA, 3.25% NaOCl, and 2% CHX in immortalized oral keratinocyte cells. Conclusion: Overall, the formulated 0.2% PO-AMNE irrigant was an effective antimicrobial and biocompatible which could combat endodontic-infection-related polymicrobial biofilms.

Anti-Candida auris activity in vitro and in vivo of micafungin loaded nanoemulsions

Fungi are becoming increasingly resistant, especially the new strains. Therefore, this work developed nanoemulsions (NE) containing micafungin (MICA), in order to improve its action against infections caused by Candida auris. The NEs were composed of the surfactants polyoxyethylene (20) cetyl ether (Brij 58®)/soy phosphatidylcholine at 10%, sunflower oil/cholesterol at 10%, and 80% PBS. The NEs were characterized by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). For the microbiological in vitro evaluation the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), ergosterol/sorbitol, time kill and biofilms tests were performed. Additionally, the antifungal activity was also evaluated in a Galleria mellonella model. The same model was used in order to evaluate acute toxicity. The NE showed a size of ∼ 42.12 nm, a polydispersion index (PDI) of 0.289, and a zeta potential (ZP) of -3.86 mV. NEM had an average size of 41.29 nm, a PDI of 0.259, and a ZP of -4.71 mV. Finally, both nanoemulsions showed good stability in a storage period of 3 months. Although NEM did not show activity in planktonic cells, it exhibited action against biofilm and in the in vivo infection model. In the alternative in vivo model assay, it was possible to observe that both, NEM and free MICA at 0.2 mg/l, was effective against the infection, being that NEM presented a better action. Finally, NEM and free MICA showed no acute toxicity up to 4 mg/l. NEM showed the best activities in in vitro in mature antibiofilm and in alternative in vivo models in G. mellonella. Although, NEs showed to be attractive for MICA transport in the treatment of infections caused by C. auris in vitro and in vivo studies with G. mellonella, further studies should be carried out, in mice, for example.

Inhalable Formulations to Treat Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC): Recent Therapies and Developments

Cancer has been the leading cause of mortalities, with lung cancer contributing 18% to overall deaths. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for about 85% of all lung cancers. The primary form of therapy used to treat lung cancer still includes oral and systemic administration of drugs, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy. Some patients have to go through a regime of combination therapy. Despite being the only available form of therapy, their use is limited due to the adverse effects, toxicity, and development of resistance over prolonged use. This led to a shift and progressive evolution into using pulmonary drug delivery systems. Being a non-invasive method of drug-administration and allowing localized delivery of drugs to cancer cells, inhalable drug delivery systems can lead to lower dosing and fewer systemic toxicities over other conventional routes. In this way, we can increase the actual local concentration of the drug in lungs, which will ultimately lead to better antitumor therapy. Nano-based systems also provide additional diagnostic advantages during lung cancer treatment, including imaging, screening, and tracking. Regardless of the advantages, pulmonary delivery is still in the early stages of development and various factors such as pharmacology, immunology, and toxicology should be taken into consideration for the development of suitable inhalable nano-based chemotherapeutic drugs. They face numerous physiological barriers such as lung retention and efficacy, and could also lead to toxicity due to prolonged exposure. Nano-carriers with a sustained drug release mechanism could help in overcoming these challenges. This review article will focus on the various inhalable formulations for targeted drug delivery, including nano-based delivery systems such as lipids, liposome, polymeric and inorganic nanocarriers, micelles, microparticles and nanoaggregates for lung cancer treatment. Various devices used in pulmonary drug delivery loaded on various nano-carriers are also discussed in detail.

Tadalafil Nanoemulsion Mists for Treatment of Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension via Nebulization

Oral tadalafil (TD) proved promising in treating pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). However, to ensure higher efficacy and reduce the systemic side effects, targeted delivery to the lungs through nebulization was proposed as an alternative approach. This poorly soluble drug was previously dissolved in nanoemulsions (NEs). However, the formulations could not resist aqueous dilution, which precluded its dilution with saline for nebulization. Thus, the current study aimed to modify the previous systems into dilutable TD-NEs and assess their suitability for a pulmonary application. In this regard, screening of various excipients was conducted to optimize the former systems; different formulations were selected and characterized in terms of physicochemical properties, nebulization performance, stability following sterilization, and biocompatibility. Results showed that the optimal system comprised of Capmul-MCM-EP:Labrafac-lipophile (1:1) (w/w) as oil, Labrasol:Poloxamer-407 (2:1) (w/w) as surfactant mixture (S_mix) and water. The optimum formulation P2_TD resisted aqueous dilution, exhibited reasonable drug loading (2.45 mg/mL) and globule size (25.04 nm), acceptable pH and viscosity for pulmonary administration, and could be aerosolized using a jet nebulizer. Moreover, P2_TD demonstrated stability following sterilization and a favorable safety profile confirmed by both in-vitro and in-vivo toxicity studies. These favorable findings make P2_TD promising for the treatment of pediatric PAH.

Olmesartan medoxomil self-microemulsifying drug delivery system reverses apoptosis and improves cell adhesion in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis in rats

Olmesartan medoxomil (OM) is an angiotensin receptor blocker. This study aimed to investigate the effects of OM self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (OMS) in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced acute colitis in rats. Besides two control groups, five TNBS-colitic-treated groups (n = 8) were given orally sulfasalazine (100 mg/kg/day), low and high doses of OM (3.0 and 10.0 mg/kg/day) (OML and OMH) and of OMS (OMSL and OMSH) for seven days. A colitis activity score was calculated. The colon was examined macroscopically. Colonic levels of myeloperoxidase, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), malondialdehyde, and reduced glutathione were measured. Plasma and colonic olmesartan levels were measured. Colonic sections were subjected to hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemical staining for E-cadherin, caspase-3, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). Protein expression of E-cadherin, Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax), and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and cleaved caspase-3 by Western blot was done. TNBS-colitic rats showed increased colonic myeloperoxidase, TNF-α, IL-6, and malondialdehyde, decreased colonic glutathione, histopathological, immunohistochemical, and protein expression alterations. OMS, compared with OM, dose-dependently achieved higher colonic free olmesartan concentration, showed better anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic effects, improved intestinal barrier, and decreased mucolytic activity. OMS more effectively up-regulated the reduced Bcl-2, Bcl-2/Bax ratio, and E-cadherin expression, and down-regulated the overexpressed Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and MMP-9. OMSL exerted effects comparable to OMH. Sulfasalazine exerted maximal colonic protective effects and almost completely reversed colonic damage, and OMSH showed nearly similar effects with non-significant differences in-between or compared with the normal control group. In conclusion, OMS could be a potential additive treatment for Crohn's disease colitis.

Permeability of Olmesartan Medoxomil from Lipid Based and Suspension Formulations using an Optimized HDM-PAMPA Model

Hexadecane membrane-parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (HDM-PAMPA) is based on an artificial hexadecane membrane that separates the two compartments (donor and acceptor compartment). This model is used to predict the permeability of drugs in gastrointestinal tract and to simulate the passive absorption. In vivo behaviour of the drugs can be estimated with these systems in drug development studies. In our study we optimized HDM-PAMPA model to determine permeability of olmesartan medoxomil (OM) lipid based drug delivery system (OM-LBDDS). In order to prove that LBDDS formulation facilitates the weak permeability of OM, permeation rates were compared with the OM suspension formula (containing 0.25% v/w CMC). The experiment was performed on a 96-well MultiScreen® PAMPA filter plate (MAIPN4510). The permeability of olmesartan formulations from the donor to acceptor compartment separated by a HDM membrane were determined by the previous validated HPLC method. We created positive control series without coating hexadecane membrane to present the LBDDS and suspension formulation permeability from uncoated plates. The effective permeability constant (P_e) was calculated by the formula and improvement of permeability of OM-LBDDS formulation from hexadecane membrane was confirmed. On the contrary there was no permeation of OM-Suspension in the hexadecane coated plates. As a result, the intestinal permeability of OM-LBDDS was calculated to be at least 100 times more than the suspension. OM-Suspension permeation was only observed in the hexadecane uncoated positive control plates. This was also manifestation of HDM-PAMPA mimicking permeability of intestines because of its lipidic construction.

Anti-Hypertensive Activity of Some Selected Unani Formulations: An Evidence-Based Approach for Verification of Traditional Unani Claims Using LC-MS/MS for the Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Blood Parameters in Laboratory Rats

Background: Systemic arterial hypertension, which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease(CVD), is the most significant modifiable risk factor for mortality and morbidity worldwide. WHO has recognized Unanipathy as an alternate system of medicine. The aim of the present study is to investigate the anti-hypertensive activity of some selected unani formulations using L-NAME model. Method: Group I or hypertensive control group: L-NAME administered for 7 days and left for the next 7 days; Group II or KASgroup: L-NAME administered (i.p) for 7 days and L-NAME + KAS (1000 mg/kg b.w) for the next 7 days; Group III or DMM group: L-NAME administered (i.p) for 7 days and L-NAME + DMM (2000 mg/kg b.w) for the next 7 days; Group IV or MSR group: L-NAME administered (i.p) for 7 days and L-NAME + MSR (300 mg/kg b.w) for the next 7 days; Group V or HJ group: L-NAME administered (i.p) for 7 days and L-NAME + HJ (113 mg/kg b.w) for the next 7 days; Group VI or KGS group: L-NAME administered (i.p) for 7 days and L-NAME +KGS (2000 mg/kg b.w) for the next 7 days. Non-invasive systolic blood pressure and RR-interval (ECG) was measured. Plasma was investigated forsodium, potassium, nitrite, ANP, adrenaline, noradrenaline and aldosterone on day 0, 7 and 14 using LC-MS/MS. Result: Treatment showed a non-significant lowreduction in SBP (systolic blood pressure) of KAS, MSR and HJ while that of DMM was quite significant (p < 0.05), but in the case of KGS, SBP increased. DMM on day 14 significantly (p < 0.05) reduced plasma nitrite while no significant plasma Na+ was noted. In the case of both DMM and KGS, potassium increased significantly (p < 0.05) on day 14. No significant changes in plasma ANP and aldosterone was observed against DMM and KGS while blood levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline significantly (p < 0.05) changed. No significant change in body weight was found. Conclusions: L-NAME KAS, MSR and HJ showed no change in SBP while DMM showed a significant reduction in SBP with decreased plasma nitrite. Probably, DMM may have anti-hypertensive activity mediated through NO inhibition while KGS may involve central sympathomimetic action.

New and developing pharmacotherapies for hypertension

INTRODUCTION

Despite the significant contribution of hypertension to the global burden of disease, disease control remains poor worldwide. Considering this unmet clinical need, several new antihypertensive drugs with novel mechanisms of action are under development.

AREAS COVERED

The present review summarizes the recent advances in the development of emerging pharmacological agents for the management of hypertension. The latest technological innovations in the design of optimized formulations of available antihypertensive drugs and the potential role of the modification of intestinal microbiota to improve blood pressure (BP) control are also covered.

EXPERT OPINION

Significant efforts have been made to develop new antihypertensive agents with novel actions that target the main mechanisms involved in resistant hypertension. Sacubitril/valsartan may emerge as a potential first-line drug due to its superiority over renin angiotensin system inhibitors, and SGLT2 inhibitors can reduce BP in difficult-to-control hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes. In addition, firibastat and aprocitentan may expand the therapeutic options for resistant hypertension by novel mechanism of actions. Since gut dysbiosis not only leads to hypertension but also causes direct target organ damage, prebiotics and probiotics could represent a potential strategy to prevent or reduce the development of hypertension and to contribute to BP control.

In-vitro and in-vivo evaluations of tocotrienol-rich nanoemulsified system on skin wound healing

Proper wound healing is vital for the survival of higher organisms. Responses to skin injury can lead to complications such as scar formation that can affect the quality of life. In this study, keratinocytes migration (scratch assay) and zebrafish tail regeneration experiments were used to evaluate the wound healing effect of a tocotrienol-based nanoemulsified (NE) system against ascorbic acid and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as positive and negative controls, respectively. MTT assay provided a concentration range of 0.35–8.75 μg/ml of nanoemulsion that produced cell viability more than 100%. After 24 hours of treatment, the wound closure of keratinocytes were found to be significantly faster by 73.76%, 63.37% and 35.56%, respectively when treated with 3.50 μg/ml and 1.75 μg/ml of NE compared to the blank. The lethal concentration at 50% (LC₅₀ value) obtained from acute and prolonged toxicity was almost similar, which was 4.6 mg/ml and 5.0 mg/ml, respectively. Growth of zebrafish tail regeneration treated with NE at a concentration of 2.5 mg/ml was significantly faster than the untreated zebrafish, which regenerated to 40% on the fifth day, more than 60% on the tenth day of treatment and fully recovered at the twentieth day. In conclusion, these results showed the potential of the tocotrienols-based nanoemulsified system in enhancing wound healing through accelerated wound closure.

A Revolutionary Blueprint for Mitigation of Hypertension via Nanoemulsion

Hypertension is one of the most important causes of mortality, affecting the health status of the patient. At the same time, hypertension causes a huge health and economic burden on the whole world. The incidence and prevalence of hypertension are rising even among young people in both urban as well as rural communities. Although various conventional therapeutic moieties are available for the management of hypertension, they have serious flaws such as hepatic metabolism, reduced dose frequency, poor aqueous solubility, reduced bioavailability, and increased adverse effects, making the drug therapy ineffective. Therefore, it is required to design a novel drug delivery system having the capability to solve the constraints associated with conventional treatment of hypertension. Nanotechnology is a new way of using and manipulating the matter at the molecular level, whose functional organization is measured in nanometers. The applications of nanotechnology in the field of medicine provide an alternative and novel direction for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and show excellent performance in the field of targeted drug therapy. Various nanotechnologies based drug delivery systems, such as solid lipid nanoparticles, nanosuspension, nanoemulsion, liposome, self-emulsifying systems, and polymeric nanoparticles, are available. Among them, nanoemulsion has provided a niche to supplement currently available therapeutic choices due to numerous benefits like stability, ease of preparation, enhanced drug absorption, reduced hepatic metabolism, increased dose frequency, enhanced bioavailability, and encapsulation of hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic drugs. This present review provides an in-depth idea about progression in treatment of hypertension, constraints for antihypertensive drug therapy, need of nanoemulsions to overcome these constraints, comparative analysis of nanoemulsions over other nanostructure drug delivery systems, pharmacodynamics studies of nanoemulsions for treatment of hypertension, recent patents for drug-loaded nanoemulsions meant for hypertension, and marketed formulations of nanoemulsions for hypertension.

Role of Organic and Inorganic Nanoparticles in the Drug Delivery System for Hypertension Treatment: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The present investigation was designed to systematically review the antihypertensive effects of all the organic and inorganic nanoparticles in the in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials.

METHODS

The current study was carried out using 06-PRISMA guideline and registered in the CAMARADES- NC3Rs Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Facility (SyRF) database. The search was performed on five English databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar, without time limitation for publications worldwide related to the anti-hypertensive effects of all the organic and inorganic nanoparticles without date limitation, so as to identify all the published articles (in vitro, in vivo, clinical, and case-control). Studies in any language were entered in the search step if they had an English abstract.

RESULTS

Out of 3602 papers, 60 including 25 werein vitro (41.7%), 17 in vitro / in vivo (28.3%), 16 in vivo (26.7%), and 2 in vitro / ex vivo (3.3%) up to 2020 met the inclusion criteria for discussion in this systematic review. The most widely used nanoparticles were organic nanoparticles such as polylactic acid, poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), lipid, chitosan, etc., followed by inorganic nanoparticles such as silver and palladium nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

This review demonstrated the anti-hypertensive effects of some organic and inorganic nanoparticles alone or in combination with the available anti-hypertensives. We found that organic nanoparticles such as PGLA and chitosan can be considered as preferred options in nanomedicine for treating high blood pressure. The results also showed these nanoparticles displayed antihypertensive effects through some mechanisms such as sustained release forms via increasing bioavailability, increasing oral bioavailability and improving oral and non-oral absorption, counteracting excessive superoxide, decreasing blood pressure, etc. However, further investigations are required to prove these effects, particularly in clinical settings, as well as their accurate possible mechanisms and toxicity.

Development of a naringenin microemulsion as a prospective ophthalmic delivery system for the treatment of corneal neovascularization: in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Naringenin, a flavonoid, possesses antiangiogenic potential and inhibits corneal neovascularization (CNV); however, its therapeutic use is restricted due to poor solubility and limited bioavailability. In this study, we developed a naringenin microemulsion (NAR-ME) for inhibiting CNV. NAR-ME formulation was composed of triacetin (oil phase), Cremophor RH40 (CRH40), PEG400, and water, its droplet size was 13.22 ± 0.13 nm with a narrow size distribution (0.112 ± 0.0014). The results demonstrated that NAR-ME released higher and permeated more drug than NAR suspension (NAR-Susp) in in vitro drug release and ex vivo corneal permeation study. Human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) toxicity study showed no toxicity with NAR-ME, which is consistent with the result of ocular irritation study. NAR-ME had high bioavailability 1.45-fold, 2.15-fold, and 1.35-fold higher than NAR-Susp in the cornea, conjunctiva, and aqueous humor, respectively. Moreover, NAR-ME (0.5% NAR) presented efficacy comparable to that of dexamethasone (0.025%) in the inhibition of CNV in mice CNV model induced by alkali burning, resulting from the attenuation of corneal vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-14) expression. In conclusion, the optimized NAR-ME formulation demonstrated excellent physicochemical properties and good tolerance, enhanced ocular bioavailability and corneal permeability. This formulation is promising, safe, and effective for the treatment of CNV.

Tocotrienols-rich naringenin nanoemulgel for the management of diabetic wound: Fabrication, characterization and comparative in vitro evaluations

The present research had been attempted to formulate and characterize tocotrienols-rich naringenin nanoemulgel for topical application in chronic wound conditions associated with diabetes. In due course, different phases of the nanoemulsion were chosen based on the solubility study, where combination of Capryol 90 and tocotrienols, Solutol HS15, and Transcutol P were selected as oil, surfactant, and cosurfactant, respectively. The nanoemulsions were formulated using the spontaneous emulsification method. Subsequently, Carbopols were incorporated to develop corresponding nanoemulgels of the optimized nanoemulsions. Thermodynamically stable optimized nanoemulgels were evaluated for their globule size, polydispersity index (PDI), surface charge, viscosity, mucoadhesive property, spreadability, in vitro release and release mechanism. Further, increasing polymer concentration in the nanoemulgels was reflected with the increased mucoadhesive property with corresponding decrease in the release rate of the drug. The optimized nanoemulgel (NG1) consisted of uniform dispersion (PDI, 0.452 ​± ​0.03) of the nanometric globules (145.58 ​± ​12.5) of the dispersed phase, and negative surface charge (−21.1 ​± ​3.32 ​mV) with viscosity 297,600 ​cP and good spreadability. In vitro release of naringenin in phosphate buffer saline revealed a sustained release profile up to a maximum of 74.62 ​± ​4.54% from the formulated nanoemulgel (NG1) within the time-frame of 24 ​h. Alternatively, the release from the nanoemulsion was much higher (89.17 ​± ​2.87%), which might be due to lack of polymer coating on the dispersed oil droplets. Moreover, the in vitro release kinetics from the nanoemulgel followed the first-order release and Higuchi model with non-Fickian diffusion. Therefore, encouraging results in this research is evident in bringing a promising future in wound management, particularly associated with diabetes complications.

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Thermodynamically stable naringenin-loaded tocotrienol-rich nanoemulgels were fabricated using spontaneous method.

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Developed nanoemulgel possesses nanometric globule size with good spreadability.

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Controlled in vitro release was obtained over a period of 24 ​h.

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First-order release and Higuchi model with non-Fickian diffusion was established in the in vitro release kinetic profile.

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This nanoemulgel could be a promising tool in the management of chronic wound condition.

Development, Optimization, and Evaluation of Luliconazole Nanoemulgel for the Treatment of Fungal Infection

The present study aimed to optimize luliconazole nanoemulsion using Box–Behnken statistical design, which was further incorporated into the polymeric gel of Carbopol 934. The formulation was characterized for its size, entrapment efficiency, ex vivo permeation, and mechanism of release. The size of the dispersed globules of the optimized drug-loaded nanoemulsion was found to be 17 ± 3.67 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) less than 0.5. Although the surface charge was recorded at –9.53 ± 0.251, the stability was maintained by the polymeric matrix that prevented aggregation and coalescence of the dispersed globules. The luliconazole-nanoemulgel (LUL-NEG) was characterized for drug content analysis, viscosity, pH, and refractive index, where the results were found to be 99.06 ± 0.59%, 9.26 ± 0.08 Pa.s, 5.65 ± 0.17, and 1.31 ± 0.08, respectively. The permeation across the rat skin was found to be significantly higher with LUL-NEG when compared with LUL gel. Furthermore, the skin irritation test performed in experimental animals revealed that the blank NEG, as well as the LUL-NEG, did not produce any signs of erythema following 48 h exposure. In addition, the histopathological findings of the experimental skins reported no abnormal signs at the formulation application site. Finally, the NEG formulation was found to create a statistically significant zone of inhibition ( $P$  < 0.05) when compared to all other test groups. Overall, it could be summarized that the nanoemulgel approach of delivering luliconazole across the skin to treat skin fungal infections could be a promising strategy.

Nose-to-brain delivery of amisulpride-loaded lipid-based poloxamer-gellan gum nanoemulgel: In vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies

Unfavorable side effects of available antipsychotics limit the use of conventional delivery systems, where limited exposure of the drugs to the systemic circulation could reduce the associated risks. The potential of intranasal delivery is gaining interest to treat brain disorders by delivering the drugs directly to the brain circumventing the tight junctions of the blood-brain barrier with limited systemic exposure of the entrapped therapeutic. Therefore, the present research was aimed to fabricate, optimize and investigate the therapeutic efficacy of amisulpride (AMS)-loaded intranasal in situ nanoemulgel (AMS-NG) in the treatment of schizophrenia. In this context, AMS nanoemulsion (AMS-NE) was prepared by employing aqueous-titration method and optimized using Box-Behnken statistical design. The optimized nanoemulsion was subjected to evaluation of globule size, transmittance, zeta potential, and mucoadhesive strength, which were found to be 92.15 nm, 99.57%, -18.22 mV, and 8.90 g, respectively. The AMS-NE was converted to AMS-NG using poloxamer 407 and gellan gum. Following pharmacokinetic evaluation in Wistar rats, the brain C_max for intranasal AMS-NG was found to be 1.48-folds and 3.39-folds higher when compared to intranasal AMS-NE and intravenous AMS-NE, respectively. Moreover, behavioral investigations of developed formulations were devoid of any extrapyramidal side effects in the experimental model. Finally, outcomes of the in vivo hematological study confirmed that intranasal administration of formulation for 28 days did not alter leukocytes and agranulocytes count. In conclusion, the promising results of the developed and optimized intranasal AMS-NG could provide a novel platform for the effective and safe delivery of AMS in schizophrenic patients.

Emerging Applications of Nanotechnology in Healthcare Systems: Grand Challenges and Perspectives

Healthcare, as a basic human right, has often become the focus of the development of innovative technologies. Technological progress has significantly contributed to the provision of high-quality, on-time, acceptable, and affordable healthcare. Advancements in nanoscience have led to the emergence of a new generation of nanostructures. Each of them has a unique set of properties that account for their astonishing applications. Since its inception, nanotechnology has continuously affected healthcare and has exerted a tremendous influence on its transformation, contributing to better outcomes. In the last two decades, the world has seen nanotechnology taking steps towards its omnipresence and the process has been accelerated by extensive research in various healthcare sectors. The inclusion of nanotechnology and its allied nanocarriers/nanosystems in medicine is known as nanomedicine, a field that has brought about numerous benefits in disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Various nanosystems have been found to be better candidates for theranostic purposes, in contrast to conventional ones. This review paper will shed light on medically significant nanosystems, as well as their applications and limitations in areas such as gene therapy, targeted drug delivery, and in the treatment of cancer and various genetic diseases. Although nanotechnology holds immense potential, it is yet to be exploited. More efforts need to be directed to overcome these limitations and make full use of its potential in order to revolutionize the healthcare sector in near future.

Design of Olmesartan Medoxomil-Loaded Nanosponges for Hypertension and Lung Cancer Treatments

Olmesartan medoxomil (OLM) is one of the prominent antihypertensive drug that suffers from low aqueous solubility and dissolution rate leading to its low bioavailability. To improve the oral bioavailability of OLM, a delivery system based on ethylcellulose (EC, a biobased polymer) nanosponges (NSs) was developed and evaluated for cytotoxicity against the A549 lung cell lines and antihypertensive potential in a rat model. Four OLM-loaded NSs (ONS1-ONS4) were prepared and fully evaluated in terms of physicochemical properties. Among these formulations, ONS4 was regarded as the optimized formulation with particle size (487 nm), PDI (0.386), zeta potential (ζP = -18.1 mV), entrapment efficiency (EE = 91.2%) and drug loading (DL = 0.88%). In addition, a nanosized porous morphology was detected for this optimized system with NS surface area of about 63.512 m2/g, pore volume and pore radius Dv(r) of 0.149 cc/g and 15.274 Å, respectively, measured by nitrogen adsorption/desorption analysis. The observed morphology plus sustained release rate of OLM caused that the optimized formulation showed higher cytotoxicity against A549 lung cell lines in comparison to the pure OLM. Finally, this system (ONS4) reduced the systolic blood pressure (SBP) significantly (p < 0.01) as compared to control and pure OLM drug in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Overall, this study provides a scientific basis for future studies on the encapsulation efficiency of NSs as promising drug carriers for overcoming pharmacokinetic limitations.

Development, Characterization, and Immunomodulatory Evaluation of Carvacrol-loaded Nanoemulsion

Carvacrol (CV) is an essential oil with numerous therapeutic properties, including immunomodulatory activity. However, this effect has not been studied in nanoemulsion systems. The objective of this study was to develop an innovative carvacrol-loaded nanoemulsion (CVNE) for immunomodulatory action. The developed CVNE comprised of 5% w/w oily phase (medium chain triglycerides + CV), 2% w/w surfactants (Tween 80^®/Span 80^®), and 93% w/w water, and was produced by ultrasonication. Dynamic light scattering over 90 days was used to characterize CVNE. Cytotoxic activity and quantification of cytokines were evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) culture supernatants. CVNE achieved a drug loading of 4.29 mg/mL, droplet size of 165.70 ± 0.46 nm, polydispersity index of 0.14 ± 0.03, zeta potential of −10.25 ± 0.52 mV, and good stability for 90 days. CVNE showed no cytotoxicity at concentrations up to 200 µM in PBMCs. CV diminished the production of IL-2 in the PBMC supernatant. However, CVNE reduced the levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-2, IL-17, and IFN-γ at 50 µM. In conclusion, a stable CVNE was produced, which improved the CV immunomodulatory activity in PBMCs.

Nanotechnology-based lipid systems applied to resistant bacterial control: A review of their use in the past two decades

The rate of infections caused by resistant bacteria to the antimicrobials available for human use grows exponentially every year, which generates major impacts on human health and the world economy. In the last two decades, human beings can witness the expressive increase in the Science and Technology worldwide, and areas such as Health Sciences have benefited from these advances in favor of human health, such as the advent of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology as an important approach applied for bacterial infections treatment with resistance profile to available antibiotics. This review of the scientific literature brings the applicability of nanotechnology-based lipid systems as an innovative tool in the improvement of bacterial infections treatment. Important studies involving the use of liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, microemulsions and lipid nanocapsules were verified in the period from 2000 to 2020, where important scientific results were found and will serve as a basis for the use of these systems to remain in constant updating. This manuscript shows the use of these drug delivery systems as potential vehicles for antibacterial compounds, which opens a new hope in the complement of the antibacterial therapeutic arsenal. Important studies developed in the last 20 years are present in this review, and thus guarantees an update on the use of these drug delivery systems for researchers from different areas of Health Sciences.

Antipsychotic Potential and Safety Profile of TPGS-Based Mucoadhesive Aripiprazole Nanoemulsion: Development and Optimization for Nose-To-Brain Delivery

Delivering therapeutics to the brain using conventional dosage forms is always a challenge, thus the present study was aimed to formulate mucoadhesive nanoemulsion (MNE) of aripiprazole (ARP) for intranasal delivery to transport the drug directly to the brain. Therefore, a TPGS based ARP-MNE was formulated and optimized using the Box-Behnken statistical design. The improved in vitro release profile of the formulation was in agreement to enhanced ex vivo permeation through sheep mucous membranes with a maximum rate of permeation co-efficient (62.87  cm h^-1 × 10³) and flux (31.43  μg cm^-2.h^-1). The pharmacokinetic profile following single-dose administration showed the maximum concentration of drug in the brain (C_max) of 15.19 ± 2.51  μg mL^-1 and T_max of 1 h in animals with ARP-MNE as compared to 10.57 ± 1.88  μg mL^-1 and 1 h, and 2.52 ± 0.38  μg mL^-1 and 3 h upon intranasal and intravenous administration of ARP-NE, respectively. Further, higher values of % drug targeting efficiency (96.9%) and % drug targeting potential (89.73%) of ARP-MNE through intranasal administration were investigated. The studies in Wistar rats showed no existence of extrapyramidal symptoms through the catalepsy test and forelimb retraction results. No ex vivo ciliotoxicity on nasal mucosa reflects the safety of the components and delivery tool. Further, findings on locomotor activity and hind-limb retraction test in ARP-MNE treated animals established its antipsychotic efficacy. Thus, it can be inferred that the developed ARP-MNE could effectively be explored as brain delivery cargo in the effective treatment of schizophrenia without producing any toxic manifestation.

Oral Gel Loaded by Fluconazole‒Sesame Oil Nanotransfersomes: Development, Optimization, and Assessment of Antifungal Activity

Candidiasis is one of the frequently encountered opportunistic infections in the oral cavity and can be found in acute and chronic presentations. The study aimed to develop fluconazole-loaded sesame oil containing nanotransfersomes (FS-NTF) by the thin-layer evaporation technique to improve the local treatment of oral candidiasis. Optimization of the formulation was performed using the Box‒Behnken statistical design to determine the variable parameters that influence the vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, zone of inhibition, and ulcer index. Finally, the formulated FS-NTF was embedded within the hyaluronic acid‒based hydrogel (HA-FS-NTF). The rheological behavior of the optimized HA-FS-NTF was assessed and the thixotropic behavior with the pseudoplastic flow was recorded; this is desirable for an oral application. An in vitro release study revealed the rapid release of fluconazole from the HA-FS-NTF. This was significantly higher when compared with the fluconazole suspension and hyaluronic acid hydrogel containing fluconazole. Correspondingly, the ex vivo permeation was also found to be higher in HA-FS-NTF in sheep buccal mucosa (400 μg/cm2) when compared with the fluconazole suspension (122 μg/cm2) and hyaluronic acid hydrogel (294 μg/cm2). The optimized formulation had an inhibition zone of 14.33 ± 0.76 mm and enhanced antifungal efficacy for the ulcer index (0.67 ± 0.29) in immunocompromised animals with Candida infection; these findings were superior to those of other tested formulations. Hence, it can be summarized that fluconazole can effectively be delivered for the treatment of oral candidiasis when it is entrapped in a nanotransfersome carrier and embedded into cross-linked hyaluronic acid hydrogel.

Optimized Icariin Cubosomes Exhibit Augmented Cytotoxicity against SKOV-3 Ovarian Cancer Cells

Clinical application of icariin (ICA) is limited, despite its activity against cancer growth, because of the low solubility of ICA in an aqueous environment. Therefore, the present study attempted to develop and optimize ICA-loaded cubosome delivery and to explore its efficacy and possible mechanism of action against ovarian cancer. The optimization of the cubosome formulation was performed using the Box‒Behnken statistical design; during the characterization, the particle sizes were in the range of 73 to 183 nm and the entrapment efficiency was 78.3% to 97.3%. Optimized ICA-loaded cubosomes (ICA-Cubs) exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptotic potential, compared with ICA-raw, against ovarian cancer cell lines (SKOV-3 and Caov 3). The optimized ICA-Cubs showed a relatively non-cytotoxic effect on normal EA.hy926 endothelial cells. Further analysis of cell cycle arrest suggested a potential role in the pre-G1 and G2/M phases for ICA-Cubs in comparison with ICA-raw. ICA-Cubs increased the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the overexpression of p53 and caspase-3 in the SKOV-3 cell line. In conclusion, the cubosomal delivery of ICA might provide a prospective approach towards the superior control of ovarian cancer cell growth. Its improved efficacy compared with that of the free drug might be due to the improved solubility and cellular permeability of ICA.

Development and Optimization of Naringenin-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Nanoemulsion for Topical Therapy in Wound Healing

The potential role of naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, in the treatment of chronic wound has prompted the present research to deliver the drug in nanoemulsion (NE) form, where synergistic role of chitosan was achieved through development of chitosan-coated NAR NE (CNNE). The NE consisted of Capryol 90, Tween 20 and Transcutol P, which was fabricated by low-energy emulsification method to encapsulate NAR within the oil core. The optimization of the formulated NEs was performed using Box-Behnken statistical design to obtain crucial variable parameters that influence globule size, size distribution and surface charge. Finally, the optimized formulation was coated with different concentrations of chitosan and subsequently characterized in vitro. The size of the CNNE was found to be increased when the drug-loaded formulation was coated with chitosan. Controlled release characteristics depicted 67-81% release of NAR from the CNNE, compared to 89% from the NE formulation. Cytotoxicity study of the formulation was performed in vitro using fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3), where no inhibition in proliferation of the cells was observed with CNNE. Finally, the wound healing potential of the CNNE was evaluated in an abrasion-created wound model in experimental animals where the animals were treated and compared histologically at 0 and 14 days. Significant improvement in construction of the abrasion wound was observed when the animals were treated with formulated CNNE, whereas stimulation of skin regeneration was depicted in the histological examination. Therefore, it could be summarized that the chitosan coating of the developed NAR NE is a potential platform to accelerate healing of wounds.

Bioavailability Enhancement of Olmesartan Medoxomil Using Hot-Melt Extrusion: In-Silico, In-Vitro, and In-Vivo Evaluation

Olmesartan medoxomil (OLM) an antihypertensive molecule with poor solubility and poor bioavailability (26% when taken orally) was selected as a model drug. Herein, rationale development of amorphous solid dispersion with hot-melt extrusion of poorly bioavailable OLM was carried out with the aid of quality by design (QbD), in-silico, in-vitro, and in-vivo evaluations. Polymer selection commenced with the selection of thermoplastic water-soluble polymers with the compatible processing temperature window as per the thermal behavior of OLM. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations as well assisted in the selection of a carrier. Promising dissolution enhancement was observed with the help of Kollidon VA-64 (VA-64) as a carrier. Optimization of the formulation was executed using the QbD approach with design of experiment as a statistical optimization tool. Interactions between VA-64 and OLM on the atomic level were studied with the help of atomistic MD simulations. Characterization of the optimized extrudates were carried out with scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, in-vitro dissolution study, and in-vivo pharmacokinetic studies. Molecular-level mixing of OLM with VA-64 resulted into glass solution formation which rapidly dissolves (28 times in-vitro dissolution enhancement) in GI tract fluids and instantly gets absorbed into blood circulation. In-vivo pharmacokinetic studies performed in Sprague-Dawley rats reflected superior bioavailability (201.60%) with a significant increase in the C_max with short T_max through amorphization of OLM. The in-silico results were in agreement with the observed results of in-vitro dissolution studies and in-vivo pharmacokinetic study.

Antimicrobial Essential Oil Formulation: Chitosan Coated Nanoemulsions for Nose to Brain Delivery

Brain infections as meningitis and encephalitis are attracting a great interest. Challenges in the treatment of these diseases are mainly represented by the blood brain barrier (BBB) that impairs the efficient delivery of even very potent drugs to reach the brain. The nose to the brain administration route, is a non-invasive alternative for a quick onset of action, and enables the transport of numerous medicinal agents straight to the brain thus workarounding the BBB through the highly vascularized olfactory region. In this report, Thymus vulgaris and Syzygium aromaticum essential oils (EOs) were selected to be included in chitosan coated nanoemulsions (NEs). The EOs were firstly analyzed to determine their chemical composition, then used to prepare NEs, that were deeply characterized in order to evaluate their use in intranasal administration. An in vitro evaluation against a collection of clinical isolated bacterial strains was carried out for both free and nanoemulsioned EOs. Chitosan coated NEs showed to be a potential and effective intranasal formulation against multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria such as methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus and multi-drug resistant Gram-negative microorganisms including carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Preparation, characterization, and optimization of asenapine maleate mucoadhesive nanoemulsion using Box-Behnken design: In vitro and in vivo studies for brain targeting

The tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) restricts the entry of therapeutics into the brain. Potential of the intranasal delivery tool has been explored in administering the therapeutics directly to the brain, thus bypassing BBB. The objective of this study was to develop and optimize an intranasal mucoadhesive nanoemulsion (MNE) of asenapine maleate (ASP) in order to enhance the nasomucosal adhesion and direct brain targetability for improved efficacy and safety. Box-Behnken statistical design was used to recognize the crucial formulation variables influencing droplet size, size distribution and surface charge of ASP-NE. ASP-MNE was obtained by incorporating GRAS mucoadhesive polymer, Carbopol 971 in the optimized NE. Optimized ASP-MNE displayed spherical morphology with a droplet size of 21.2 ± 0.15 nm and 0.355 polydispersity index. Improved ex-vivo permeation was observed in ASP-NE and ASP-MNE, compared to the ASP-solution. Finally, the optimized formulation was found to be safe in ex-vivo ciliotoxicity study on sheep nasal mucosa. The single-dose pharmacokinetic study in male Wistar rats revealed a significant increase in concentration of ASP in the brain upon intranasal administration of ASP-MNE, with a maximum of 284.33 ± 5.5 ng/mL. The time required to reach maximum brain concentration (1 h) was reduced compared to intravenous administration of ASP-NE (3 h). Furthermore, it has been established during the course of present study, that the brain targeting capability of ASP via intranasal administration had enhanced drug-targeting efficiency and drug-targeting potential. In the animal behavioral studies, no extrapyramidal symptoms were observed after intranasal administration of ASP-MNE, while good locomotor activity and hind-limb retraction test established its antipsychotic activity in treated animals. Thus, it can be concluded that the developed intranasal ASP-MNE could be used as an effective and safe tool for brain targeting of ASP in the treatment of psychotic disorders.