Formulation and development of bicontinuous nanostructured liquid crystalline particles of efavirenz

Preparation of cubic liquid crystal nanoparticles of puerarin and its protective effect on ischemic stroke

The low oral bioavailability of puerarin (Pur) affects its efficacy. Preparation of puerarin cubic liquid crystal nanoparticles (Pur-Cub) enhances the protective effect of Pur against ischemic stroke (IS) by increasing its bioavailability. The average particle size, PDI, and zeta potential of Pur-Cub were 274.70 ± 16.20 nm, 0.24 ± 0.05 and -25.30 ± 2.34 mV, respectively. Polarized light microscopy (PLM) and Small angle X-ray diffraction (SAXS) identified Pur-Cub as a cubic phase (Pn3m). The in vitro release of Pur-Cub was fast and then slow, in accordance with the biphasic kinetic equation. Pur-Cub increased the penetration of Pur in the intestine (mainly the duodenum) and significantly improved the bioavailability of Pur in the blood (304.16 %) and its distribution in the brain (1.69-fold) compared to Pur suspension. Pur-Cub narrowed down cerebral infarcts and significantly reduced levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO).

Innovative berberine nanoethosomal vaginal in situ gel: Unraveling polycystic ovary syndrome treatment on female Wistar rats

PURPOSE

The present work seeks to develop, assess and refine a nanoethosomal vaginal in situ gel containing Berberine, aimed at enhancing its efficacy in treating Poly Cystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). This formulation aims to augment drug permeation, enable controlled release kinetics, and mitigate oral adverse effects commonly associated with Berberine administration.

METHOD

Nanoethosomes formulated using diverse soya lecithin-ethanol concentrations within a 32 full-factorial-design, sought optimal formulations based on particle size and %entrapment-efficiency. Subsequent scrutiny involved PDI, Zeta potential and drug-content evaluation. TEM analysis authenticated morphology, while in vitro drug release from Nanoethosomes was examined. Pluronic F-127 concentrations (16%-21%w/v) were explored for the in situ gel, analyzing pH, gelation time and gelation temperature. The refined gel underwent evaluations for viscosity and in vitro diffusion. In vivo assessment covered pharmacokinetics, vaginal irritancy and Mifepristone-induced PCOS management, validated through histopathological and biochemical analysis, juxtaposing findings across normal, diseased, plain Berberine gel and standard metformin administered groups.

RESULTS

Optimized Nanoethosomal Formulation(F3) displayed particle size of 183.5 nm, 82.58 % as %entrapment-efficiency, PDI of 0.137, -50.34 mV as zeta potential and 81.64 ± 1.57 % drug-content. TEM analysis confirmed spherical, nano-sized particles. In vitro studies exhibited 80.45 % drug release over 24 h. The formulated gel with 18 % Pluronic F-127 showed viscosity ranging from 193.01 ± 0.16cps to 1817.08 ± 1.67cps with temperature changes from 25 ± 2.0 °C to 38 ± 2.0 °C. In vitro diffusion revealed 85.99 %drug release from optimized gel. In vivo animal studies demonstrated increased plasma drug concentration, non-irritating properties in vaginal tests, and efficacy in managing Mifepristone-induced PCOS compared to other treatments. Short-term stability evaluations confirmed thermodynamic stability at room-temperature.

Vesicular approach of cubosomes, its components, preparation techniques, evaluation and their appraisal for targeting cancer cells

Cancer has been characterized by abnormal and uncontrolled proliferation of cells. Majority of drugs given through chemotherapy produce unwanted and adverse effects of chemotherapeutic agents to the other healthy cells and tissues of body. Various nanocarriers have now been considered for treatment of cancer. Among various nanocarriers, cubosomes are the nano sized dispersions that have drawn interest of researchers recently. Cubosomes are defined as dispersions of colloidal nature containing cubic crystalline liquid formations in aqueous medium in presence of suitable surfactant molecules. The unique capacity to encapsulate lipophilic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic compounds inside their structure distinguishes them among others. Top- down method and hydrotrope method are most often employed methods for cubosomes preparation. Cubosomes can be characterized by Polarized light microscopy Photon correlation spectroscopy X-ray scattering (SAXS), Transmission electron microscopy and various stability studies. Cubic lipid nanoparticles have a very stable cubic structure that enables slower dissociation rate, increased retention and site-specific delivery of drugs. Cubosomes containing extracts of cornelian cherry for boosting anti-cancerous effects in cancer of colorectal cells by preventing against GIT destruction. When applied for skin cancer, cubosomes have shown to be having enhanced permeation of the drug. In liver cancer, increased bioavailability of drug was observed via cubosomes. This current review elaborates the advancement of cubosomes and their effective role in the treatment of cancer. This review aims to describe vesicular approach of cubosomes, its composition and method of preparation, characterization tests as well as elaborates various applications of cubosomes in cancer.

Intranasal administration of innovative triamcinolone acetonide encapsulated cubosomal in situ gel: formulation and characterization

AIM

The primary objective of the research was to develop a cubosomal in situ gel encapsulated with Triamcinolone acetonide (TCA) in order to enhance its penetration through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) when administered via the intranasal route, thus enabling efficient and rapid action.

METHOD

Cubosomes were formulated by top-down approach using glyceryl monooleate (GMO), using pluronics127 (PF127) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in varying proportions based on the Box-Behnken design. High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) analysis confirmed the morphology of the cubosomes. The in situ gel was formulated and optimized. Experiments involving ex vivo permeation and histopathology analyses were undertaken to evaluate drug permeation and tissue effects.

RESULTS

The cubosomes exhibited a particle size (PS) of 197.9 nm, zeta potential (ZP) of -31.11 mV, and entrapment efficacy (EE) of 84.31%, with low deviation. Batch F4 (19% PF127) showed favorable results. In vitro and ex vivo permeation studies revealed drug release of 78.59% and 76.65%, respectively, after 8 h. Drug release followed the Hixson Crowell model of release kinetics. The histopathological examination revealed no signs of toxicity or adverse effects on the nasal mucosa of the sheep. The formulation exhibited short-term stability, maintaining its integrity and properties when stored at room temperature.

CONCLUSION

The utilization of an intranasal cubosomal in situ gel encapsulated with TCA was anticipated to lower intracranial pressure and improve patient adherence by offering effective relief for individuals suffering from Brain edema. This efficacy is attributed to its rapid onset of action and its safe and well-tolerated dosage form.

Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases: Drug delivery and biomedical applications

Liquid crystal (LC)-based nanoformulations may efficiently deliver drugs and therapeutics to targeted biological sites. Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases (LLCPs) have received much interest in recent years due to their unique structural characteristics of both isotropic liquids and crystalline solids. These LLCPs can be utilized as promising drug delivery systems to deliver drugs, proteins, peptides and vaccines because of their improved drug loading, stabilization, and controlled drug release. The effects of molecule shape, microsegregation, and chirality are very important in the formation of liquid crystalline phases (LCPs). Homogenization of self-assembled amphiphilic lipids, water and stabilizers produces LLCPs with different types of mesophases, bicontinuous cubic (cubosomes) and inverse hexagonal (hexosomes). Moreover, many studies have also shown higher bioadhesivity and biocompatibility of LCs due to their structural resemblance to biological membranes, thus making them more efficient for targeted drug delivery. In this review, an outline of the engineering aspects of LLCPs and polymer-based LLCPs is summarized. Moreover, it covers parenteral, oral, transdermal delivery and medical imaging of LC in targeting various tissues and is discussed with a scope to design more efficient next-generation novel nanosystems. In addition, a detailed overview of advanced liquid crystal-based drug delivery for vaccines and biomedical applications is reviewed.

Lyophilized Lipid Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles as an Antimicrobial Delivery System

Lipid liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) are unique nanocarriers that efficiently deliver antimicrobials through biological barriers. Yet, their wide application as an antimicrobial delivery system is hindered by their poor stability in aqueous dispersions. The production of dried LCNP powder via lyophilization is a promising approach to promote the stability of LCNPs. However, the impact of the process on the functionality of the loaded hydrophobic cargoes has not been reported yet. Herein, we investigated the potential of lyophilization to produce dispersible dry LCNPs loaded with a hydrophobic antimicrobial compound, gallium protoporphyrin (GaPP). The effect of lyophilization on the physicochemical characteristics and the antimicrobial activity of rehydrated GaPP-LCNPs was studied. The rehydrated GaPP-LCNPs retained the liquid crystalline structure and were monodisperse (PDI: 0.27 ± 0.02), with no significant change in nanoparticle concentration despite the minor increase in hydrodynamic diameter (193 ± 6.5 compared to 173 ± 4.2 prior to freeze-drying). Most importantly, the efficacy of the loaded GaPP as an antimicrobial agent and a photosensitizer was not affected as similar MIC values were obtained against S. aureus (0.125 µg/mL), with a singlet oxygen quantum yield of 0.72. These findings indicate the suitability of lyophilization to produce a dry form of LCNPs and pave the way for future studies to promote the application of LCNPs as an antimicrobial delivery system.

Lamivudine and Zidovudine-Loaded Nanostructures: Green Chemistry Preparation for Pediatric Oral Administration

Here, we report on the development of lipid-based nanostructures containing zidovudine (1 mg/mL) and lamivudine (0.5 mg/mL) for oral administration in the pediatric population, eliminating the use of organic solvents, which is in accordance with green chemistry principles. The formulations were obtained by ultrasonication using monoolein (MN) or phytantriol (PN), which presented narrow size distributions with similar mean particle sizes (~150 nm) determined by laser diffraction. The zeta potential and the pH values of the formulations were around -4.0 mV and 6.0, respectively. MN presented a slightly higher incorporation rate compared to PN. Nanoemulsions were obtained when using monoolein, while cubosomes were obtained when using phytantriol, as confirmed by Small-Angle X-ray Scattering. The formulations enabled drug release control and protection against acid degradation. The drug incorporation was effective and the analyses using an electronic tongue indicated a difference in palatability between the nanotechnological samples in comparison with the drug solutions. In conclusion, PN was considered to have the strongest potential as a novel oral formulation for pediatric HIV treatment.

Cationic Solid SMEDDS of Efavirenz for Improved Oral Delivery: Development by Central Composite Design, In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Efavirenz (EFV) is an anti-HIV drug with high dose and 40% oral bioavailability (BA). The aim was to improve the bioavailability by designing cationic solid SMEDDS. Solubility data, ternary phase diagrams, and central composite design were employed in design. Globule size, TEM, DSC, and SEM studies were used for characterization. Optimized L-SMEDDS contained 20 mg of EFV, 10 mg of Peceol, 43.5 mg of Tween 80, and 40 mg of Labrafac Lipophile WL-1349 and the characters included mean globule size-94 nm, PDI-0.255, and ZP-28 mV. Later, octadecylamine was added to get L-SMEDDS with  + 38 mV charge. L-SMEDDS was converted into solid S-SMEDDS by adsorbing onto silica carriers. Syloid XDP was preferred based on flow and oil adsorption capacity. The % drug (EFV) release from powder, L-SMEDDS, and solid SMEDDS were 14.04, 94.47, and 85 respectively in first 30 min. TEM picture showed dispersed globules. DSC and SEM studies indicated the loss of drug crystallinity in S-SMEDDS. Pharmacokinetic (PK) studies in Wistar rats revealed 4.12 fold hike in BA for optimized cationic S-SMEDDS when compared to EFV suspension. Increased absorption could be due to the positive charge on globules. Thus, cationic S-SMEDDS emerged as a potential novel delivery system for improvement in BA and has scope for reducing the high dose for AIDS patients by future clinical studies.

Formulation Development of Fast Dissolving Microneedles Loaded with Cubosomes of Febuxostat: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Febuxostat is a widely prescribed drug for the treatment of gout, which is a highly prevalent disease worldwide and is a major cause of disability in mankind. Febuxostat suffers from several limitations such as gastrointestinal disturbances and low oral bioavailability. Thus, to improve patient compliance and bioavailability, transdermal drug delivery systems of Febuxostat were developed for obtaining enhanced permeation. Cubosomes of Febuxostat were prepared using a bottom-up approach and loaded into a microneedle using a micromolding technique to achieve better permeation through the skin. Optimization of the process and formulation parameters were achieved using our design of experiments. The optimized cubosomes of Febuxostat were characterized for various parameters such as % entrapment efficiency, vesicle size, Polydispersity index, Transmission electron microscopy, in vitro drug release, Small angle X-ray scattering, etc. After loading it in the microneedle it was characterized for dissolution time, axial fracture force, scanning electron microscopy, in vitro drug release, pore closure kinetics, etc. It was also evaluated for various ex vivo characterizations such as in vitro cell viability, ex vivo permeation, ex vivo fluorescence microscopy and histopathology which indicates its safety and better permeation. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies proved enhanced bioavailability compared with the marketed formulation. Pharmacodynamic study indicated its effectiveness in a disease-induced rat model. The developed formulations were then subjected to the stability study, which proved its stability.

Progress on structural modification of Tetrandrine with wide range of pharmacological activities

Tetrandrine (Tet), derived from the traditional Chinese herb Fangji, is a class of natural alkaloids with the structure of bisbenzylisoquinoline, which has a wide range of physiological activities and significant pharmacfological effects. However, studies and clinical applications have revealed a series of drawbacks such as its poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and the fact that it can be toxic to humans. The results of many researchers have confirmed that chemical structural modifications and nanocarrier delivery can address the limited application of Tet and improve its efficacy. In this paper, we summarize the anti-tumor efficacy and mechanism of action, anti-inflammatory efficacy and mechanism of action, and clinical applications of Tet, and describe the progress of Tet based on chemical structure modification and nanocarrier delivery, aiming to explore more diverse structures to improve the pharmacological activity of Tet and provide ideas to meet clinical needs.

Recent advances in versatile inverse lyotropic liquid crystals

Owing to the rapid and significant progress in advanced materials and life sciences, nanotechnology is increasingly gaining in popularity. Among numerous bio-mimicking carriers, inverse lyotropic liquid crystals are known for their unique properties. These carriers make accommodation of molecules with varied characteristics achievable due to their complicated topologies. Besides, versatile symmetries of inverse LCNPs (lyotropic crystalline nanoparticles) and their aggregating bulk phases allow them to be applied in a wide range of fields including drug delivery, food, cosmetics, material sciences etc. In this review, in-depth summary, discussion and outlook for inverse lyotropic liquid crystals are provided.

Sustained release of azithromycin from lipid liquid-crystalline nanoparticles laden in situ gel for the treatment of periodontitis: In vitro and efficacy study

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting teeth, periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. Current treatment options include surgery or oral antibiotics. Oral dosage forms shows systemic side effects due to frequent dosing and it failed to reach the therapeutic concentration in the periodontal cavity. In this work, a novel in situ gel loaded with azithromycin laden lipid liquid-crystalline nanoparticles (cubosomes) was formulated for effective treatment of periodontitis. Cubosomes were prepared using DL-α-monoolein (MO) and Pluronic^®F-127, and characterized for size, zeta potential, shape, and entrapment efficacy. In situ gel laden cubosomes were evaluated for pH, drug content, viscosity, syringeability, mucoadhesive strength, texture profile, gelation temperature, gel strength, in vitro release profile, antimicrobial activity and in vivo efficacy in rat model. Cubosomal size (137-450 nm) and entrapment efficacy (74-88%) increases with increase in the level of MO. The in situ gel-cubosomal batches showed sufficient viscosity (878-956 cp), syringeability (125-150N), mucoadhesive strength (25.7-26.2 dyne/cm²), gelation temperature (34.3-35.3^oC), gel strength (45-51 s), and texture profile for periodontal application. The in vitro release profiles showed sustain azithromycin release for 24h from the in situ gel-cubosomal gels compared to 4h from the marketed azithromycin gel. The in vivo studies (alveolar bone loss and histopathology) in rat model confirmed the efficacy of in situ gel to treat periodontitis at low frequency of dosing compared to marketed gel. In conclusion, the study demonstrated the potential of cubosomes to sustain the release of azithromycin from in situ gelling system for effective treatment of periodontitis.

Cubosomes as an emerging platform for drug delivery: a state-of-the-art review

Lipid-based drug delivery nanoparticles, including non-lamellar type, mesophasic nanostructured materials of lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs), have been a topic of interest for researchers for their applications in encapsulation of drugs...

Influence of drug-carrier compatibility and preparation method on the properties of paclitaxel-loaded lipid liquid crystalline nanoparticles

The main objective of this paper is to elucidate the influence of drug-carrier compatibility and preparation method on the properties of Paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded lipid liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LLCNs). Here, glyceryl monooleate (GMO), glycerol monolinoleate (GML), glyceryl monolinolenate (GMLO) were selected as the lipids, and Soluplus, Poloxamer 407 (P407), Tween 80 were selected as the stabilizer to prepare LLCNs. First of all, PTX-carrier compatibility was screened by molecular dynamic simulation using Flory-Huggins interaction parameter as the criteria. Thereafter, PTX-loaded LLCNs were prepared under different energy input conditions and were characterized. Influence of lipid type, stabilizer type, drug-lipid ratio and preparation method on properties of the LLCNs was explored. It was found that both lipid and stabilizer type had significant influence on drug encapsulation efficiency. Compared to the LLCNs prepared under high energy condition, PTX-loaded LLCN prepared under low energy input had higher drug encapsulation efficiency, smaller particle size (211.6 nm versus 346.8 nm) and a sustained release behavior. In conclusion, molecular dynamic simulation is an effective tool to select the most appropriate composition of LLCNs for a specific drug substance, and LLCNs prepared using low energy input methods was particularly applicable for industrial manufacture.

Liquid Crystalline Phases for Enhancement of Oral Bioavailability

Liquid crystalline phases (LCPs) are generated upon lipolysis of ingested lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. The breaking off and subsequent evolution of LCPs produce more advanced vesicular and micellar structures which facilitate oral absorption of lipids, as well as co-loaded drug entities. Owing to sustained or controlled drug release, bioadhesiveness, and capability of loading drugs of different properties, LCPs are promising vehicles to implement for enhancement of oral bioavailability. This review aims to provide an overview on the classification, preparation and characterization, in vivo generation and transformation, absorption mechanisms, and encouraging applications of LCPs in enhancement of oral bioavailability. In addition, we comment on the merits of LCPs as oral drug delivery carriers, as well as solutions to industrialization utilizing liquid crystalline precursor and preconcentrate formulations.

Efavirenz Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Efficient and Prolonged Viral Inhibition in HIV-Infected Macrophages

Background: The clinical outcome of anti-HIV therapy is poor due to the inherent fallouts ofanti-HIV therapy. It is further worsened due to the presence of viral reservoirs in immune cellslike the macrophages. An ideal anti-HIV therapy must reach, deliver the drug and exert itsaction inside macrophages. To address this, we developed novel cationic nanostructured lipidcarriers of efavirenz (cationic EFV-NLC). Methods: The developed cationic EFV NLCs were evaluated for particle size, zeta potential,encapsulation efficiency, in-vitro drug release, DSC, XRD, TEM, cytotoxicity, cellular uptakestudies and anti-HIV efficacy in a monocyte-derived macrophage cell line (THP-1). Results: Cationic EFV-NLCs showed high encapsulation efficiency (90.54 ± 1.7%), uniformparticle size distribution (PDI 0.3-0.5 range) and high colloidal stability with positive zetapotential (+23.86 ± 0.49 mV). DSC and XRD studies confirmed the encapsulation of EFVwithin NLCs. Cytotoxicity studies (MTT assay) revealed excellent cytocompatibility (CC5013.23 ± 0.54 μg/mL). Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the efficient uptake of cationic EFVNLCs,while flow cytometry revealed time and concentration dependant uptake within THP-1cells. Cationic EFV-NLCs showed higher retention and sustained release with 2.32-fold higherpercent inhibition of HIV-1 in infected macrophages as compared to EFV solution at equimolarconcentrations. Interestingly, they demonstrated 1.23-fold superior anti-HIV efficacy over EFVloadedNLCs at equimolar concentrations. Conclusion: Cationic NLCs were capable of inhibiting the viral replication at higher limitsconsistently for 6 days suggesting successful prevention of HIV-1 replication in infectedmacrophages and thus can prove to be an attractive tool for promising anti-HIV therapy.

Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles for Nasal Delivery of Rosuvastatin: Implications on Therapeutic Efficacy in Management of Epilepsy

In the present study we investigated the protective role of intranasal rosuvastatin liquid crystalline nanoparticles (Ros-LCNPs) against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizures, increasing current electroshock (ICES) induced seizures, and PTZ-induced status epilepticus. From the dose titration study, it was evident that intranasal rosuvastatin (ROS), at lower dose, was more effective than oral and intraperitoneal ROS. The Ros-LCNPs equivalent to 5 mg/kg ROS were developed by hydrotrope method using glyceryl monooleate (GMO) as lipid phase. The high resolution TEM revealed that the formed Ros-LCNPs were cubic shaped and multivesicular with mean size of 219.15 ± 8.14 nm. The Ros-LCNPs showed entrapment efficiency of 70.30 ± 1.84% and release was found to be biphasic following Korsmeyer–Peppas kinetics. Intranasal Ros-LCNPs (5 mg/kg) showed significant increase in latency to PTZ-induced seizures and ICES seizure threshold compared to control and intranasal ROS solution. Additionally, intranasal Ros-LCNPs provided effective protection against PTZ-induced status epilepticus. No impairment in cognitive functions was observed following intranasal Ros-LCNPs. The results suggested that Ros-LCNPs could be an effective and promising therapeutics for the epilepsy management.

Natural Ergot Alkaloids in Ocular Pharmacotherapy: Known Molecules for Novel Nanoparticle-Based Delivery Systems

Several pharmacological properties are attributed to ergot alkaloids as a result of their antibacterial, antiproliferative, and antioxidant effects. Although known for their biomedical applications (e.g., for the treatment of glaucoma), most ergot alkaloids exhibit high toxicological risk and may even be lethal to humans and animals. Their pharmacological profile results from the structural similarity between lysergic acid-derived compounds and noradrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin neurotransmitters. To reduce their toxicological risk, while increasing their bioavailability, improved delivery systems were proposed. This review discusses the safety aspects of using ergot alkaloids in ocular pharmacology and proposes the development of lipid and polymeric nanoparticles for the topical administration of these drugs to enhance their therapeutic efficacy for the treatment of glaucoma.

Formulation and optimization of liquisolid compact for enhancing dissolution properties of efavirenz by using DoE approach

Efavirenz displays low and variable bioavailability because of its poor aqueous solubility and high log P-value. The present investigation was aimed to improve the dissolution profile of efavirenz by using a simple, scalable and cost-effective technique of liquisolid compact. The drug was dissolved in Trancutol-HP for preparing the liquid medicament which was subsequently mixed with carrier and coating material to make free-flowing and compressible powder. 3² full factorial design was used to optimize the formulation in which the Neusilin US2/Corn starch ratios and carrier/coating material ratio were selected as independent variables. The results of in-vitro dissolution test proved that liquisolid compacts have significantly higher dissolution rate than tablets containing pure drug. Results of DSC and XRD studies suggested that the high dissolution of the drug from the liquisolid compacts was possibly because of the drug either being in an amorphous state or being molecularly dispersed within the internal matrix of compacts.

Efavirenz nanomicelles loaded vaginal film (EZ film) for preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) of HIV

Preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) using oral or vaginal microbicide is an emerging and effective strategy to prevent HIV transmission. Vaginal film is becoming more acceptable and a convenient dosage form compared to cream, gel and suppository. Extremely poor aqueous solubility of efavirenz (EFV) limits its use as vaginal microbicide. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a monomeric surfactant free, rapidly soluble vaginal film of EFV (EZ film). EZ film was prepared using a tetrafunctional block polymer (Tetronic 1107), carrageenan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by solvent evaporation method. First, different solubilizers were screened for EFV solubility, in vitro cytotoxicity and cell membrane integrity assay on HeLa cells. Optimized film was characterized for solid state, mechanical strength, epithelial integrity, in vitro drug release in simulated vaginal fluid (SVF), simulated seminal fluid (SSF) and in vitro anti-HIV activity. Optimized EZ film showed a particle size of 48 ± 3.8 nm with PDI of 0.299. Differential scanning colorimetry (DSC) thermogram suggested the complete amorphization of EFV within the film. EZ film rapidly disintegrated (30 s) with complete release of EFV in SVF and SSF. The film was found to be non-toxic to HeLa cells and showed similar anti-HIV-1 activity as that of EFV in DMSO. EZ film did not show any significant change in the TEER value in HEC 1A cell line. Hence, the findings from the current study strongly suggest that the EZ film could be a cost-effective and convenient dosage form for PrEP of HIV.

Organogel Nanoparticles as a New Way to Improve Oral Bioavailability of Poorly Soluble Compounds

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to evaluate organogel nanoparticles as a lipophilic vehicle to increase the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble compounds. Efavirenz (EFV), a Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) Class II, was used as drug model.

METHODS

Organogel nanoparticles loaded with EFV were formulated with sunflower oil, 12-hydroxystearic acid (HSA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Various parameters have been investigated in the current study such as (i) the release profile of organogel assessed by USP 4 cell flow dialysis, (ii) the impact of organogel on intestinal absorption, using Caco-2 cells as in vitro model and jejunum segments as ex vivo assay and (iii) the bioavailability of organogel following oral pharmacokinetic study.

RESULTS

250-300 nm spherical particles with a final concentration of 4.75 mg/mL drug loading were obtained, corresponding to a thousand fold increase in EFV solubility, combined to a very high encapsulation efficiency (>99.8%). Due to rapid diffusion, drug was immediately released from the nanoparticles. The biopharmaceutical evaluation on ex vivo jejunum segments demonstrated an increased absorption of EFV from organogel nanoparticles compare to a native EFV suspension. In vitro assays combining Caco-2 cell cultures with TEM and confocal microscopy demonstrated passive diffusion, while paracellular integrity and endocytosis activity remain expelled. Oral pharmacokinetics of EFV organogel nanoparticles improve oral bioavailability (F_r: 249%) and quick absorption compared to EFV suspension.

CONCLUSION

Organogel nanoparticles increase the bioavailability of BCS Class II drugs. The main phenomena is simply oil transfer from the gelled particles through the cell membrane.

Ganoderic acid loaded nano-lipidic carriers improvise treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

This work evaluates nano-lipid carrier of ganoderic acid (GA) and molecular docking on various cancer signaling pathways, an attempt to improve the hepatic condition associated with hepatic carcinoma (HCC) induced by diethyl-nitrosamine (DEN) in Wistar rats. Molecular docking mechanism of GA was performed through binding simulation analysis for various cancer signaling pathway, viz., Bcl-2, Pl3K, NF-κB, Akt/PKB, and Stat-3. Double emulsion solvent displacement method was implied for preparation of GA-loaded nano-lipid carrier. GA-NLCs were evaluated for drug loading capacity, entrapment efficiency, particle size, gastric stability, in vitro drug release, cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and in vivo studies including macroscopical, hepatic injury markers, non-hepatic, biochemical, antioxidant parameters, and histopathological evaluation. HCC was induced by intraperitoneal injection of DEN (200 mg/kg). Both in vivo and molecular docking results were compatible in establishing the alteration in hepatic nodules, hepatic, non-hepatic, and antioxidant parameters, in a significant manner (p < .001) by GA and GA-NLC along with signal alteration of Bcl-2, Pl3K, NF-κB Akt/PKB, and Stat-3 pathway. Histopathological observation confirmed and supported the above result by GA and GA-NLC. On the basis of our results, we can advocate that, GA interferes with various cancer signaling proteins involved in pathogenesis of cancer and was able to cease the progression of disease. Additionally, GA-NLCs proved its chemoprotective effect against the DEN-induced HCC by modulation of hepatic and non-hepatic parameters through various mechanisms.

Efavirenz oral delivery via lipid nanocapsules: formulation, optimisation, and ex-vivo gut permeation study

Present investigation aimed to prepare, optimise, and characterise lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) for improving the solubility and bioavailability of efavirenz (EFV). EFV-loaded LNCs were prepared by the phase-inversion temperature method and the influence of various formulation variables was assessed using Box-Behnken design. The prepared formulations were characterised for particle size, polydispersity index (PdI), zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and release efficiency (RE). The biocompatibility of optimised formulation on Caco-2 cells was determined using 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Then, it was subjected to ex-vivo permeation using rat intestine. EFV-loaded LNCs were found to be spherical shape in the range of 20-100 nm with EE of 82-97%. The best results obtained from LNCs prepared by 17.5% labrafac and 10% solutol HS15 when the volume ratio of the diluting aqueous phase to the initial emulsion was 3.5. The mean particle size, zeta potential, PdI, EE, drug loading%, and RE during 144 h of optimised formulation were confirmed to 60.71 nm, -35.93 mV, 0.09, 92.60, 7.39 and 55.96%, respectively. Optimised LNCs increased the ex vivo intestinal permeation of EFV when compared with drug suspension. Thus, LNCs could be promising for improved oral delivery of EFV.

Cubic Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures Involving Catalase and Curcumin: BioSAXS Study and Catalase Peroxidatic Function after Cubosomal Nanoparticle Treatment of Differentiated SH-SY5Y Cells

The development of nanomedicines for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders demands innovative nanoarchitectures for combined loading of multiple neuroprotective compounds. We report dual-drug loaded monoolein-based liquid crystalline architectures designed for the encapsulation of a therapeutic protein and a small molecule antioxidant. Catalase (CAT) is chosen as a metalloprotein, which provides enzymatic defense against oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Curcumin (CU), solubilized in fish oil, is co-encapsulated as a chosen drug with multiple therapeutic activities, which may favor neuro-regeneration. The prepared self-assembled biomolecular nanoarchitectures are characterized by biological synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) at multiple compositions of the lipid/co-lipid/water phase diagram. Constant fractions of curcumin (an antioxidant) and a PEGylated agent (TPEG1000) are included with regard to the lipid fraction. Stable cubosome architectures are obtained for several ratios of the lipid ingredients monoolein (MO) and fish oil (FO). The impact of catalase on the structural organization of the cubosome nanocarriers is revealed by the variations of the cubic lattice parameters deduced by BioSAXS. The outcome of the cellular uptake of the dual drug-loaded nanocarriers is assessed by performing a bioassay of catalase peroxidatic activity in lysates of nanoparticle-treated differentiated SH-SY5Y human cells. The obtained results reveal the neuroprotective potential of the in vitro studied cubosomes in terms of enhanced peroxidatic activity of the catalase enzyme, which enables the inhibition of H2O2 accumulation in degenerating neuronal cells.

Non-Lamellar Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Lipid Nanoparticles for the Next Generation of Nanomedicine

Nonlamellar lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) lipid nanomaterials have emerged as a promising class of advanced materials for the next generation of nanomedicine, comprising mainly of amphiphilic lipids and functional additives self-assembling into two- and three-dimensional, inverse hexagonal, and cubic nanostructures. In particular, the lyotropic liquid crystalline lipid nanoparticles (LCNPs) have received great interest as nanocarriers for a variety of hydrophobic and hydrophilic small molecule drugs, peptides, proteins, siRNAs, DNAs, and imaging agents. Within this space, there has been a tremendous amount of effort over the last two decades elucidating the self-assembly behavior and structure-function relationship of natural and synthetic lipid-based drug delivery vehicles in vitro, yet successful clinical translation remains sparse due to the lack of understanding of these materials in biological bodies. This review provides an overview of (1) the benefits and advantages of using LCNPs as drug delivery nanocarriers, (2) design principles for making LCNPs with desirable functionalities for drug delivery applications, (3) current understanding of the LLC material-biology interface illustrated by more than 50 in vivo, preclinical studies, and (4) current patenting and translation activities in a pharmaceutical context. Together with our perspectives and expert opinions, we anticipate that this review will guide future studies in developing LCNP-based drug delivery nanocarriers with the objective of translating them into a key player among nanoparticle platforms comprising the next generation of nanomedicine for disease therapy and diagnosis.

Mathematical Models as Tools to Predict the Release Kinetic of Fluorescein from Lyotropic Colloidal Liquid Crystals

In this study, we investigated the release kinetic of fluorescein from colloidal liquid crystals made from monoglyceride and different non-ionic surfactants. The crystals were physicochemically characterized and the release experiments were carried out under the sink conditions, while mathematical models were described as extrapolations from solutions of the diffusion equation, in different initial and boundary conditions imposed by pharmaceutical formulations. The diffusion equation was solved using Laplace and Fourier transformed functions for release kinetics from infinite reservoirs in a semi-infinite medium. Solutions represents a general square root law and can be applied for the release kinetic of fluorescein from lyotropic colloidal liquid crystals. Akaike, Schwartz, and Imbimbo criteria were used to establish the appropriate mathematical model and the hierarchy of the performances of different models applied to the release experiments. The Fisher statistic test was applied to obtain the significance of differences among mathematical models. Differences of mathematical criteria demonstrated that small or no significant statistic differences were carried out between the various applied models and colloidal formulations. Phenomenological models were preferred over the empirical and semi-empirical ones. The general square root model shows that the diffusion-controlled release of fluorescein is the mathematical models extrapolated for lyotropic colloidal liquid crystals.

Nanostructured cubosomes in an in situ nasal gel system: an alternative approach for the controlled delivery of donepezil HCl to brain

The purpose of this research was to develop cubosomal mucoadhesive in situ nasal gel to enhance the donepezil HCl delivery to the brain. Glycerol mono-oleate (GMO) and surfactant poloxamer 407 were used to prepare cubosomes. The developed formulations were characterized for particle size (PS), poly dispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in vitro drug release and in vivo bio-distribution study in blood and brain tissue. Central composite design was used for the optimization purpose and the selected formulation (containing GMO 2 g and poloxamer 1.5%) was prepared in presence of gellan gum and konjac gum as gelling agent and mucoadhesive agent respectively. The optimal cubosomal dispersion and optimal cubosomal mucoadhesive in situ nasal gel were subjected to in vivo bio-distribution studies in rat model. It showed significantly higher transnasal permeation and better distribution to the brain, when compared to the drug solution. Thus, the formulated cubosomal mucoadhesive in situ gel could be considered as a promising carrier for brain targeting of CNS acting drugs through the transnasal route.

Tailoring microstructural, drug release properties, and antichagasic efficacy of biocompatible oil-in-water benznidazol-loaded nanoemulsions

This study explored the transition of lamellar-type liquid crystal (LLC) to biocompatible oil-in-water nanoemulsions able to modify benznidazole (BNZ) release and target the drug to cells infected with the T. cruzi parasite. Three cosolvents (2methylpyrrolidone [NMP], polyethylene glycol [POL], and propylene glycol [PRO] were tested to induce the transition of anisotropic LLC systems to isotropic nanoemulsions. Mixtures of soy phosphatidylcholine with sodium oleate stabilized the dispersions of medium chain triglyceride in water. Rheological measurements, polarized microscopy, and small angle X-ray scattering demonstrated that there is a phase transition from LLC to desired nanoemulsions. These small and narrow droplet-sized nanocarriers exhibited some advantages and promising features, such as the enhanced BNZ aqueous solubility and slow drug release rate. In vitro cell biocompatibility of formulations was assessed in the Vero E6 and SiHa cell lines. Drug-loaded nanoemulsions inhibited the epimastigote growth of the T. cruzi parasite (IC50 0.208 ± 0.052 μg mL^-1) and reduced its infective life form trypomastigote (IC50 0.392 ± 0.107 μg mL^-1). The oil-in-water nanoemulsions were demonstrated as promising biocompatible liquid drug delivery systems capable of improving the BNZ trypanocidal activity for the treatment of Chagas disease.

Improving the clinical relevance of a mouse pregnancy model of antiretroviral toxicity; a pharmacokinetic dosing-optimization study of current HIV antiretroviral regimens

Animal models can be useful tools for the study of HIV antiretroviral (ARV) safety/toxicity in pregnancy and the mechanisms that underlie ARV-associated adverse events. The utility and translatability of animal model-based ARV safety/toxicity data is improved if ARVs are tested in clinically relevant concentrations. The objective of this work was to improve the clinical relevance of our mouse pregnancy model of ARV toxicity, by determining the doses of currently prescribed ARV regimens that would yield human therapeutic plasma concentrations. Pregnant mice were administered increasing doses of ARV combinations by oral gavage, followed by measurement of drug concentrations in the maternal plasma and amniotic fluid. Concentrations of ten different ARVs in maternal plasma and amniotic fluid samples of pregnant mice are presented, with dosing optimization to yield human pregnancy-relevant plasma drug concentrations. We have proposed optimal dosing for different regimen component drugs to achieve human therapeutic plasma levels, so that a clinically relevant standard dosing is established. A review of related ARV pharmacokinetic studies in (pregnant/non-pregnant) rodents and human pregnancy is also shown. We hope these data will inform and encourage the use of mouse pregnancy models in the study of ARV safety/toxicity.

Antimicrobial peptide-loaded liquid crystalline precursor bioadhesive system for the prevention of dental caries

Background

Anticaries agents must interfere with the adhesion of Streptococcus mutans and its proliferation in dental biofilm, without causing host toxicity and bacterial resistance. Natural substances, including cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs) and their fragments, such as β-defensin-3 peptide fragment (D1–23), have been widely studied. However, the chemical and physical stability of CAMPs may be compromised by external factors, such as temperature and pH, reducing the period of antimicrobial activity.

Methods

To overcome the aforementioned disadvantage, this study developed and character-ized a drug delivery system and evaluated the cytotoxicity and effect against S. mutans biofilm of a D1–23-loaded bioadhesive liquid crystalline system (LCS). LCS was composed of oleic acid, polyoxypropylene-(5)-polyoxyethylene-(20)-cetyl alcohol, Carbopol^® 974P and Carbopol^® 971P. LCS was analyzed by polarized light microscopy (PLM), rheology (viscoelasticity and flow properties) and in vitro bioadhesion. The viability of epithelial cells was evaluated. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) against S. mutans were determined for D1–23 for further evaluation of the effect against S. mutans biofilm after 4 and 24 h of exposure to treatments.

Results

PLM, rheology, and in vitro bioadhesion tests showed that both viscosity and bioadhesion of LCS increased after it was diluted with artificial saliva. D1–23-loaded LCS system presented better activity against S. mutans biofilm after 24 h when compared to 4 h of treatment, showing a cumulative effect. Neither LCS nor D1–23-loaded LCS presented toxicity on human epithelial cells.

Conclusion

D1–23-loaded LCS is a promising drug delivery system for the prevention of dental caries.

Freeze-dried and re-hydrated liquid crystalline nanoparticles stabilized with disaccharides for drug-delivery of the plectasin derivative AP114 antimicrobial peptide

Liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs), e.g. cubosomes and hexosomes, are receiving more and more attraction as drug delivery vehicles. Dry powder formulation that forms LCNPs upon hydration can be advantageous to make new routes of administration accessible. In this work, we investigate use of three disaccharides (lactose, trehalose and sucrose) as protective matrices for glycerol monooleate based LCNP forming powders produced by freeze-drying. Phase behavior, particle size and size distributions at the different preparation steps were monitored by small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Particle appearance was imaged by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). Moreover, the therapeutic relevant antimicrobial peptide AP114 (plectasin derivative) was incorporated in the formulations. Peptide encapsulation and release as well as in vitro antibacterial effect were investigated. Results showed that all freeze-dried powders did form particles with liquid crystalline structure upon hydration. However, a phase transition from the bicontinuous cubic Pn3m to the reversed hexagonal was observed, as a consequence of sugar addition and the freeze-drying procedure. Data indicates that trehalose is the preferred choice of lyo-protectant in order to maintain a mono-modal particle size distribution. In addition, antimicrobial activity of AP114-containing formulations was found to be highest for the formulation containing trehalose. The release kinetics of AP114 from the nanoparticles was strongly affected by the dimensions of the hexagonal phase. Larger dimension of the hexagonal phase, significantly improved the release of AP114 and antimicrobial activity of the formulation.

In Vitro TyRP-1 Knockdown Based on siRNA Carried by Liquid Crystalline Nanodispersions: an Alternative Approach for Topical Treatment of Vitiligo

PURPOSE

Vitiligo is a skin disease characterized by depigmentation and the presence of white patches that are associated with the loss of melanocytes. The most common explanation for the cause of this condition is that it is an autoimmune condition. TyRP-1 is involved in melanin pigment synthesis but can also function as a melanocyte differentiation antigen. This protein plays a role in the autoimmune destruction of melanocytes, which results in the depigmentation, characteristic of this disease. In this study, we evaluated liquid crystalline nanodispersions as non-viral vectors to deliver siRNA-TyRP-1 as an alternative for topical treatment of vitiligo.

METHODS

Liquid crystalline nanodispersions were obtained and characterized with respect to their physical-chemical parameters including size, PdI and zeta potential, as well as Small Angle X-ray Scattering and complexing to siRNA. The effects of the liquid crystalline nanodispersions on the cellular viability, cell uptake and levels of the knockdown target TyRP-1 were evaluated in melan-A cells after 24 h of treatment.

RESULTS

The liquid crystalline nanodispersions demonstrated adequate physical-chemical parameters including nanometer size and a PdI below 0.38. These systems promoted a high rate of cell uptake and an impressive TyRP-1 target knockdown (> 80%) associated with suitable loading of TyRp-1 siRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that the liquid crystalline nanodispersions showed promising alternative for the topical treatment of vitiligo due to their physical parameters and ability in knockdown the target protein involved with autoimmune destruction of melanocytes.

Novel cationic lipid nanoparticles as an ophthalmic delivery system for multicomponent drugs: development, characterization, in vitro permeation, in vivo pharmacokinetic, and molecular dynamics studies

The purpose of this study was to prepare, optimize, and characterize a cationic lipid nanoparticle (CLN) system containing multicomponent drugs using a molecular dynamics model as a novel method of evaluating formulations. Puerarin (PUE) and scutellarin (SCU) were used as model drugs. CLNs were successfully prepared using melt-emulsion ultrasonication and low temperature-solidification technique. The properties of CLNs such as morphology, particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE), drug loading (DL), and drug release behavior were investigated. The CLNs were evaluated by corneal permeation, preocular retention time, and pharmacokinetics in the aqueous humor. Additionally, a molecular dynamics model was used to evaluate the formulation. Electron microscopy results showed that the nanoparticles were approximately spherical in shape. The EE (%) and DL (%) values of PUE and SCU in the optimal formulation were 56.60±3.73, 72.31±1.96 and 1.68±0.17, 2.44±1.14, respectively. The pharmacokinetic study in the aqueous humor showed that compared with the PUE and SCU solution, the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) value of PUE was enhanced by 2.33-fold for PUE-SCU CLNs (p<0.01), and the SCU AUC was enhanced by 2.32-fold (p<0.01). In the molecular dynamics model, PUE and SCU passed through the POPC bilayer, with an obvious difference in the free energy well depth. It was found that the maximum free energy required for PUE and SCU transmembrane movement was ~15 and 88 kJ·mol^-1, respectively. These findings indicated that compared with SCU, PUE easily passed through the membrane. The diffusion coefficient for PUE and SCU were 4.1×10^-3±0.0027 and 1.0×10^-3±0.0006 e^-5cm²·s^-1, respectively. Data from the molecular dynamics model were consistent with the experimental data. All data indicated that CLNs have a great potential for ocular administration and can be used as an ocular delivery system for multicomponent drugs. Moreover, the molecular dynamics model can also be used as a novel method for evaluating formulations.

Self-Assembled Lipid Cubic Phase and Cubosomes for the Delivery of Aspirin as a Model Drug

Three-dimensionally organized lipid cubic self-assemblies and derived oil-in-water emulsions called "cubosomes" are attractive for various biotechnological applications due to their ability to be loaded with functional molecules and their associated sustained release properties. Here, we employed both of these lipid-based systems for the delivery of a model drug, aspirin, under comparable conditions. Studies were performed by varying drug-to-lipid ratio and the type of release medium, water and phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Release rates were determined using UV-vis spectroscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering was used to confirm the type of self-assembled nanostructures formed in these lipid systems. The release from the bulk lipid cubic phase was sustained as compared to that of dispersed cubosomes, and the release in PBS was more efficient than in water. The tortuosity of the architecture, length of the diffusion pathway, type of nanostructure, and physicochemical interaction with the release media evidently contribute to these observations. This work is particularly important as it is the first report where both of these nanostructured lipid systems have been studied together under similar conditions. This work provides important insights into understanding and therefore controlling the release behavior of lipid-based drug nanocarriers.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of cubosomal in situ nasal gel containing resveratrol for brain targeting

The aim of this study was to enhance the delivery of resveratrol to the brain through the transnasal route by cubosomes. Cubosomes were prepared using glycerol monooleate and Lutrol F127 by probe sonication method. A 3² full factorial design was used for optimization of cubosomes and batch containing 4% w/v glycerol monooleate and 1.5% w/v of Lutrol F 127 was optimized. The selected cubosomal batch was cubical in shape, having mean particle size 161.5 ± 0.12 nm. Entrapment efficiency was found to be 83.08% with zeta potential of -20.9 mV. In vitro release of cubosomal batch showed controlled release of drug profile (67%) up to 24 h. The optimized cubosomal dispersion was dispersed into gelling polymer (poloxamer 407) to form in situ gel for nasal use. The optimal cubosomal gel (containing 12% w/v poloxamer 407) had been subjected to ex-vivo permeation and in vivo biodistribution studies. It showed significantly higher transnasal permeation and better distribution to brain, when compared to the drug solution (i.n.) and drug solution (oral). Finally the cubosomal gel could be considered as a promising carrier for brain targeting of Resveratrol (Res) through transnasal route.