Nanotechnological carriers for cancer chemotherapy: The state of the art

Targeted delivery of bee venom to A549 lung cancer cells by PEGylate liposomal formulation: an apoptotic investigation

This study focused on developing an optimal formulation of liposomes loaded with bee venom (BV) and coated with PEG (BV-Lipo-PEG). The liposomes were characterized using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Among the liposomal formulations, F3 exhibited the narrowest size distribution with a low PDI value of 193.72 ± 7.35, indicating minimal agglomeration-related issues and a more uniform size distribution. BV-Lipo-PEG demonstrated remarkable stability over 3 months when stored at 4 °C. Furthermore, the release of the drug from the liposomal formulations was found to be pH-dependent. Moreover, BV-Lipo-PEG exhibited favorable entrapment efficiencies, with values reaching 96.74 ± 1.49. The anticancer potential of the liposomal nanocarriers was evaluated through MTT assay, flow cytometry, cell cycle analysis, and real-time experiments. The functionalization of the liposomal system enhanced endocytosis. The IC50 value of BV-Lipo-PEG showed a notable decrease compared to both the free drug and BV-Lipo alone, signifying that BV-Lipo-PEG is more effective in inducing cell death in A549 cell lines. BV-Lipo-PEG exhibited a higher apoptotic rate in A549 cell lines compared to other samples. In A549 cell lines treated with BV-Lipo-PEG, the expression levels of MMP-2, MMP-9, and Cyclin E genes decreased, whereas the expression levels of Caspase3 and Caspase9 increased. These findings suggest that delivering BV via PEGylated liposomes holds significant promise for the treatment of lung cancer.

Mechanistic insights into the antitumoral potential and in vivo antiproliferative efficacy of a silver-based core@shell nanosystem

This study delves into the biomolecular mechanisms underlying the antitumoral efficacy of a hybrid nanosystem, comprised of a silver core@shell (Ag@MSNs) functionalized with transferrin (Tf). Employing a SILAC proteomics strategy, we identified over 150 de-regulated proteins following exposure to the nanosystem. These proteins play pivotal roles in diverse cellular processes, including mitochondrial fission, calcium homeostasis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, oxidative stress response, migration, invasion, protein synthesis, RNA maturation, chemoresistance, and cellular proliferation. Rigorous validation of key findings substantiates that the nanosystem elicits its antitumoral effects by activating mitochondrial fission, leading to disruptions in calcium homeostasis, as corroborated by RT-qPCR and flow cytometry analyses. Additionally, induction of ER stress was validated through western blotting of ER stress markers. The cytotoxic action of the nanosystem was further affirmed through the generation of cytosolic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS). Finally, in vivo experiments using a chicken embryo model not only confirmed the antitumoral capacity of the nanosystem, but also demonstrated its efficacy in reducing cellular proliferation. These comprehensive findings endorse the potential of the designed Ag@MSNs-Tf nanosystem as a groundbreaking chemotherapeutic agent, shedding light on its multifaceted mechanisms and in vivo applicability.

Recent developments in targeting breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs): a descriptive review of therapeutic strategies and emerging therapies

Despite recent advancements in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer (BC), patient outcomes in terms of survival, recurrence, and disease progression remain suboptimal. A significant factor contributing to these challenges is the cellular heterogeneity within BC, particularly the presence of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). These cells are thought to serve as the clonogenic nexus for new tumor growth, owing to their hierarchical organization within the tumor. This descriptive review focuses on the evolving strategies to target BCSCs, which have become a pivotal aspect of therapeutic development. We explore a variety of approaches, including targeting specific tumor surface markers (CD133 and CD44), transporters, heat shock proteins, and critical signaling pathways like Notch, Akt, Hedgehog, KLF4, and Wnt/β-catenin. Additionally, we discuss the modulation of the tumor microenvironment through the CXCR-12/CXCR4 axis, manipulation of pH levels, and targeting hypoxia-inducible factors, vascular endothelial growth factor, and CXCR1/2 receptors. Further, this review focuses on the roles of microRNA expression, strategies to induce apoptosis and differentiation in BCSCs, dietary interventions, dendritic cell vaccination, oncolytic viruses, nanotechnology, immunotherapy, and gene therapy. We particularly focused on studies reporting identification of BCSCs, their unique properties and the efficacy of various therapeutic modalities in targeting these cells. By dissecting these approaches, we aim to provide insights into the complex landscape of BC treatment and the potential pathways for improving patient outcomes through targeted BCSC therapies.

Chitosan surface modification modulates the mucoadhesive, permeation and anti-angiogenic properties of gellan gum/bevacizumab nanoparticles

Bevacizumab (BVZ) was the first monoclonal antibody approved by the FDA and has shown an essential advance in the antitumor therapy of colorectal cancer (CRC), however, the systemic action of BVZ administered intravenously can trigger several adverse effects. The working hypothesis of the study was to promote the modulation of the mucoadhesion properties and permeability of the BVZ through the formation of nanoparticles (NPs) with gellan gum (GG) with subsequent surface modification with chitosan (CS). NPs comprising BVZ and GG were synthesized through polyelectrolyte complexation, yielding spherical nanosized particles with an average diameter of 264.0 ± 2.75 nm and 314.0 ± 0.01 nm, polydispersity index of 0.182 ± 0.01 e 0.288 ± 0.01, and encapsulation efficiency of 29.36 ± 0.67 e 60.35 ± 0.27 mV, for NPs without (NP_BVZ) and with surface modification (NP_BVZ + CS). The results showed a good ability of nanoparticles with surface modification to modulate the NPs biological properties.

Bioresponsive gingerol-loaded alginate-coated niosomal nanoparticles for targeting intracellular bacteria and cancer cells

Targeting and treating intracellular pathogen infections has been long-standing challenge, particularly in light of the escalating prevalence of antimicrobial resistance. Herein, an optimum formulation of alginate (AL)-coated niosome-based carriers for delivery of herbal extract Gingerol (Gin) was developed to treat intracellular pathogen infections and cancer cells. We used Gin-Nio@AL as a model drug to assess its efficacy against Gram-negative/positive bacteria and breast cancer cell lines. Our investigation affirmed its heightened antibacterial and anticancer properties. The antibacterial activity of Gin-Nio@AL against intracellular Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) was also tested. In the current study, the niosome nanoparticles containing herbal extract Gingerol were optimized regarding lipid content and Surfactant per Cholesterol molar ratio. The developed formulation provided potential advantages, such as smooth globular surface morphology, small diameter (240.68 nm), pH-sensitive sustained release, and high entrapment efficiency (94.85 %). The release rate of Gin from AL-coated niosomes (Gin-Nio@AL) in physiological and acidic pH is lower than uncoated nanoparticles (Gin-Nio). Besides, the release rate of Gin from niosomal formulations increased in acidic pH. The Gin-Nio@AL demonstrated good antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa, and compared to Gin-Nio, the MIC values decreased to 7.82 ± 0.00 and 1.95 ± 0.00 μg/mL, respectively. In addition, the time-kill assay results showed that the developed formulation significantly reduced the number of bacteria in both strains compared to other tested groups. The microtiter data and scanning electron microscope micrography showed that Gin-Nio@AL has a more significant inhibitory effect on biofilm formation than Gin-Nio and Gin. The cell cytotoxicity evaluation showed that Gin-Nio@AL reduced the survival rate of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells to 52.4 % and 45.2 % after 48 h and 72 h, respectively. The elimination of intracellular pathogens was investigated through a breast cancer cell infection in an in vitro model. Gin-Nio@AL exhibited an enhanced and sustained intracellular antibacterial activity against pathogens-infected breast cancer cells compared to other tested formulations. Overall, Gin-Nio@AL enables the triggered release and targeting of intra-extra cellular bacteria and cancer cells and provides a novel and promising candidate for treating intracellular pathogen infections and cancer cells.

Recent advancements in the targeted delivery of etoposide nanomedicine for cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Etoposide (ETO), a popular anticancer drug that inhibits topoisomerase II enzymes, may be administered more effectively and efficiently due to nanomedicine. The therapeutic application of ETO is constrained by its limited solubility, weak absorption, and severe side effects. This article summarizes substantial progress made in the development of ETO nanomedicine for the treatment of cancer. It discusses various organic and inorganic nanostructures used to load or affix ETOs, such as lipids, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), dendrimers, micelles, gold NPs, iron oxide NPs, and silica NPs. In addition, it evaluates the structural properties of these nanostructures, such as their size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release mechanism, as well as their in vitro or in vivo performance. The article also emphasizes the co-delivery of ETO with other medications or agents to produce synergistic effects or combat drug resistance in the treatment of cancer. It concludes with a discussion of the challenges and potential avenues for clinical translation of ETO nanomedicine.

Inhaled nano-based therapeutics for pulmonary fibrosis: recent advances and future prospects

It is reported that pulmonary fibrosis has become one of the major long-term complications of COVID-19, even in asymptomatic individuals. Currently, despite the best efforts of the global medical community, there are no treatments for COVID-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Recently, inhalable nanocarriers have received more attention due to their ability to improve the solubility of insoluble drugs, penetrate biological barriers of the lungs and target fibrotic tissues in the lungs. The inhalation route has many advantages as a non-invasive method of administration and the local delivery of anti-fibrosis agents to fibrotic tissues like direct to the lesion from the respiratory system, high delivery efficiency, low systemic toxicity, low therapeutic dose and more stable dosage forms. In addition, the lung has low biometabolic enzyme activity and no hepatic first-pass effect, so the drug is rapidly absorbed after pulmonary administration, which can significantly improve the bioavailability of the drug. This paper summary the pathogenesis and current treatment of pulmonary fibrosis and reviews various inhalable systems for drug delivery in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis, including lipid-based nanocarriers, nanovesicles, polymeric nanocarriers, protein nanocarriers, nanosuspensions, nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles and hydrogel, which provides a theoretical basis for finding new strategies for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis and clinical rational drug use.

In-vivo anticancer efficacy of self-targeted methotrexate-loaded polymeric nanoparticles in solid tumor-bearing rat

Here, cytotoxicity and antitumor efficacy against a chemically (N-methyl-N-nitrosourea) generated mammary tumor in rats were assessed using methotrexate-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Meth-Cs-NPs). Meth-Cs-NPs intravenous administrated resulted in noticeably decreased tumor incidence, multiplicity, and weight. Further, kidney function tests for the treated groups resulted in noticeably decreased ALP (Meth-Cs-NPs; 244 ± 15, diseases control; 403 ± 14 U/L), Creatinine (Meth-Cs-NPs; 0.81 ± 0.05, diseases control; 2 ± 0.05 mg/dl), and Urea (Meth-Cs-NPs; 56.62 ± 5, diseases control; 113 ± 6 mg/dl) levels, close to a normal control group. Similarly, liver function tests showed significantly decreased serum biomarkers, SGPT (Meth-Cs-NPs; 40 ± 1.8, diseases control; 84 ± 1.9 U/L) and SGOT (Meth-Cs-NPs; 15 ± 2, diseases control; 55 ± 4 U/L) levels in treated groups as compared to the untreated group (diseases control). From the results, pro-inflammatory cytokines were also markedly reduced in the treated group such as, TNF-α (Meth-Cs-NPs; 17.31 ± 1.15, diseases control; 36.9 ± 5 pg/mL), IL-1β (Meth-Cs-NPs; 433.3 ± 66.5, diseases control; 1540 ± 131.1 pg/mL), and IL-6 (Meth-Cs-NPs; 1515 ± 53, diseases control; 2200.6 ± 69 pg/mL) levels. Whereas Meth-Cs-NPs not only helped in lowering tumor multiplicity rates but also decrease inflammation. The studies could be successfully performed in chemically induced mammary tumors due to their easy, quick tumor growth and low mortality rates in rat models. According to the current study, Meth-Cs-NPs have high treatment potency and represent a possible therapeutic alternative for breast cancer treatment.

Multilayered polymer coating modulates mucoadhesive and biological properties of camptothecin-loaded lipid nanocapsules

Lipid core nanocapsules (NCs) coated with multiple polymer layers were rationally designed as a potential approach for the colonic delivery of camptothecin (CPT). Chitosan (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA) and hypromellose phthalate (HP) were selected as coating materials, to modulate the mucoadhesive and permeability properties of CPT regarding the improvement of local and targeted action in the colon cancer cells. NCs were prepared by emulsification/solvent evaporation method and coated with multiple polymer layers by polyelectrolyte complexation technique. NCs exhibited spherical shape, negative zeta potential, and size ranged from 184 to 252 nm. The high efficiency of CPT incorporation (>94%) was evidenced. The ex vivo permeation assay showed that nanoencapsulation reduced the permeation rate of CPT through the intestinal mucosa by up to 3.5 times, and coating with HA and HP reduced the permeation percentage by 2 times when compared to NCs coated only with CS. The mucoadhesive capacity of NCs was demonstrated in gastric and enteric pH. Nanoencapsulation did not reduce the antiangiogenic activity of CPT and, additionally, it was observed that nanoencapsulation resulted in localized antiangiogenic action of CPT.

Cancer nanomedicine: a review of nano-therapeutics and challenges ahead

Cancer is known as the most dangerous disease in the world in terms of mortality and lack of effective treatment. Research on cancer treatment is still active and of great social importance. Since 1930, chemotherapeutics have been used to treat cancer. However, such conventional treatments are associated with pain, side effects, and a lack of targeting. Nanomedicines are an emerging alternative due to their targeting, bioavailability, and low toxicity. Nanoparticles target cancer cells via active and passive mechanisms. Since FDA approval for Doxil®, several nano-therapeutics have been developed, and a few have received approval for use in cancer treatment. Along with liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions, even newer techniques involving extracellular vesicles (EVs) and thermal nanomaterials are now being researched and implemented in practice. This review highlights the evolution and current status of cancer therapy, with a focus on clinical/pre-clinical nanomedicine cancer studies. Insight is also provided into the prospects in this regard.

In vitro bio-characterization of solid lipid nanoparticles of favipiravir in A549 human lung epithelial cancer cells

Objectives

Lung cancer is a leading cause of mortality worldwide. In lung cancer treatment, nebulized solid lipid nanoparticles may be a viable drug delivery method, helping the drug reach sites of action, and improving its inhalation efficiency and pulmonary deposition. This research focused on evaluating the effectiveness of solid lipid nanoparticles of favipiravir (Fav-SLNps) in facilitating drug delivery to sites of action in lung cancer treatment.

Methods

The hot-evaporation method was used to formulate Fav-SLNps. The in vitro cell viability, anti-cancer effects, and cellular uptake activity were evaluated in A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cells treated with the Fav-SLNp formulation.

Results

The Fav-SLNps were formulated successfully. Importantly, Fav-SLNps at a concentration of 322.6 μg/ml were found to be safe and non-toxic toward A549 cells in vitro. The formulation had potential anti-proliferative properties via increasing the proportions of cells in G2/M and G0/G1 phases to 1.20 and 1.13 times those in untreated cells. Additionally, Fav-SLNp treatment significantly induced necrosis in A549 cells. Furthermore, the use of SLNps in the Fav formulation resulted in a macrophage drug uptake 1.23 times that of the free drug.

Conclusion

Our results confirmed the internalization and anti-cancer activity of the Fav-SLNp formulation in the A549 lung cancer cell line. Our findings suggest that Fav-SLNps could potentially be used as lung cancer treatment to facilitate drug delivery to sites of action in the lungs.

Preparation and physicochemical properties of cisplatin and doxorubicin encapsulated by niosome alginate nanocarrier for cancer therapy

Alginate (AL), in the form of a hydrogel, is extensively used in drug delivery. In the current study, an optimum formulation of alginate-coated niosome-based nanocarriers for co-delivery of doxorubicin (Dox) and cisplatin (Cis) was obtained for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers in an attempt to decrease drug doses and overcome multidrug resistance. The physiochemical characteristics of uncoated niosomes containing Cis and Dox (Nio-Cis-Dox) compared to alginate-coated niosomes formulation (Nio-Cis-Dox-AL). The three-level Box-Behnken method was examined to optimize the particle size, polydispersity index, entrapment efficacy (%), and percent drug release of nanocarriers. Nio-Cis-Dox-AL showed appropriate encapsulation efficiencies of 65.54 ± 1.25 % and 80.65 ± 1.80 % for Cis and Dox, respectively. Maximum drug release decreased from niosomes in case coated by alginate. Also, the zeta potential value of Nio-Cis-Dox nanocarriers decreased after coating with alginate. In vitro cellular and molecular experiments were performed to investigate the anticancer activity of Nio-Cis-Dox and Nio-Cis-Dox-AL. MTT assay showed the IC₅₀ of Nio-Cis-Dox-AL was much lower than the Nio-Cis-Dox formulations and free drugs. Cellular and molecular assays demonstrated that Nio-Cis-Dox-AL caused significant increase in apoptosis induction rate and cell cycle arrest in MCF-7 and A2780 cancer cells, as compared to Nio-Cis-Dox and free drugs. Also, the Caspase 3/7 activity increased after treatment with coated niosomes compared to uncoated nisomes and the drug-free case. Synergetic cell proliferation inhibitory impacts of Cis and Dox were demonstrated against MCF-7 and A2780 cancer cells. All anticancer experimental data demonstrated that the co-delivery of Cis and Dox through alginate-coated niosomal nanocarriers was effective for ovarian and breast cancer treatment.

Recent Developments in the Study of the Microenvironment of Cancer and Drug Delivery

Cancer is characterized by disrupted molecular variables caused by cells that deviate from regular signal transduction. The uncontrolled segment of such cancerous cells annihilates most of the tissues that contact them. Gene therapy, immunotherapy, and nanotechnology advancements have resulted in novel strategies for anticancer drug delivery. Furthermore, diverse dispersion of nanoparticles in normal stroma cells adversely affects the healthy cells and disrupts the crosstalk of tumour stroma. It can contribute to cancer cell progression inhibition and, conversely, to acquired resistance, enabling cancer cell metastasis and proliferation. The tumour's microenvironment is critical in controlling the dispersion and physiological activities of nano-chemotherapeutics which is one of the targeted drug therapy. As it is one of the methods of treating cancer that involves the use of medications or other substances to specifically target and kill off certain subsets of malignant cells. A targeted therapy may be administered alone or in addition to more conventional methods of care like surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation treatment. The tumour microenvironment, stromatogenesis, barriers and advancement in the drug delivery system across tumour tissue are summarised in this review.

The Formation of Self-Assembled Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin and d-Limonene for Cancer Therapy

Self-assembled nanoparticles present unique properties that have potential applications in the development of a successful drug delivery system. Doxorubicin (DOX) is an important anti-neoplastic anthracycline chemotherapeutic drug widely described. However, it suffers from serious dose-dependent cardiotoxicity. d-Limonene is a major constituent of numerous citrus oils that is considered a specific monoterpene against free radicals producing antioxidant activity. Herein, we aimed to design three types of self-assembled nanodelivery systems (nanoemulsion, niosomes, and polylactide nanoparticles) for loading both DOX and d-limonene to enhance the solubilization of d-limonene and provide antioxidant activity with excellent anticancer activity. As confirmed by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy, the nanoparticles were prepared successfully with diameter sizes of 52, 180, and 257 nm for the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion, niosomes, and polylactide nanoparticles, respectively. The zeta potential values were above -30 mV in all cases, which confirms the formation of stable nanoparticles. The loading efficiency of DOX was the highest in the case of the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion (75.8%), followed by niosomes (62.8%), and the least was in the case of polylactide nanoparticles with a percentage of 50.2%. The in vitro release study of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles showed a sustained release profile of doxorubicin with the highest release in the case of DOX-loaded PDLLA nanoparticles. The kinetic release model for all developed nanoparticles was the Peppas-Sahlin model, demonstrating DOX release through Fickian diffusion phenomena. Moreover, all developed nanoparticles maintain the antioxidant activity of d-limonene. The cytotoxicity study of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles showed concentration-dependent anticancer activity with excellent anticancer activity in the case of the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion and polylactide nanoparticles. These nanoparticles will be further studied in vivo to prove the cardioprotective effect of d-limonene in combination with DOX.

Targeting Myd88 using peptide-loaded mesenchymal stem cell membrane-derived synthetic vesicles to treat systemic inflammation

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) secrete extracellular vesicles (EV) with a regenerative profile, and an increasing number of studies have focused on the utilization of MSC-EV for therapeutic drug delivery. However, EV are usually produced by cells in low quantities and are packed with numerous cytoplasmic components, which may be unfavorable for further drug loading. In this study, we developed a simple process for generating membrane vesicles directly from the cells, which we refer to as synthetic eukaryotic vesicles (SyEV). We hypothesized that MSC-derived SyEV can be efficiently loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug and the loaded vesicles can strongly suppress the systemic inflammation induced by bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMV). SyEV were generated from MSC membranes through serial extrusion of the cells, ionic stress, and subsequent vesiculation of the membrane sheets, leading to high yield and purity of the SyEV with few cytosolic components remaining. When these SyEV were given to macrophages or mice exposed to OMV, the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines was similarly attenuated comparable to treatment with natural EV. We then loaded the SyEV with large numbers of peptides targeting Myd88 and observed enhanced therapeutic potential of the loaded vesicles in OMV-induced macrophages. Further, in vivo experiments showed that the peptide-encapsulated MSC-SyEV suppressed cytokine production synergistically. Taken together, these findings suggest that SyEV-based therapeutics is a highly interesting platform for delivering an advanced therapeutic drug for the treatment of systemic inflammation without severe side effects.

Green Synthesis of Endolichenic Fungi Functionalized Silver Nanoparticles: The Role in Antimicrobial, Anti-Cancer, and Mosquitocidal Activities

Green nanotechnology is currently a very crucial and indispensable technology for handling diverse problems regarding the living planet. The concoction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has opened new insights in cancer therapy. The current investigation caters to the concept of the involvement of a novel eco-friendly avenue to produce AgNPs employing the wild endolichenic fungus Talaromyces funiculosus. The synthesized Talaromyces funiculosus–AgNPs were evaluated with the aid of UV visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The synthesized Talaromyces funiculosus–AgNPs (TF-AgNPs) exhibited hemo-compatibility as evidenced by a hemolytic assay. Further, they were evaluated for their efficacy against foodborne pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Listeria innocua, and Micrococcus luteus and nosocomial Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, and Bacillus subtilis bacterial strains. The synthesized TF-AgNPs displayed cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner against MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma cells and eventually condensed the chromatin material observed through the Hoechst 33342 stain. Subsequent analysis using flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy provided the inference of a possible role of intracellular ROS (OH⁻, O⁻, H₂O₂, and O₂⁻) radicals in the destruction of mitochondria, DNA machinery, the nucleus, and overall damage of the cellular machinery of breast cancerous cells. The combined effect of predation by the cyclopoid copepod Mesocyclops aspericornis and TF-AgNPS for the larval management of dengue vectors were provided. A promising larval control was evident after the conjunction of both predatory organisms and bio-fabricated nanoparticles. Thus, this study provides a novel, cost-effective, extracellular approach of TF-AgNPs production with hemo-compatible, antioxidant, and antimicrobial efficacy against both human and foodborne pathogens with cytotoxicity (dose dependent) towards MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma.

Glioblastoma: Current Status, Emerging Targets, and Recent Advances

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor characterized by a heterogeneous population of genetically unstable and highly infiltrative cells that are resistant to chemotherapy. Although substantial efforts have been invested in the field of anti-GBM drug discovery in the past decade, success has primarily been confined to the preclinical level, and clinical studies have often been hampered due to efficacy-, selectivity-, or physicochemical property-related issues. Thus, expansion of the list of molecular targets coupled with a pragmatic design of new small-molecule inhibitors with central nervous system (CNS)-penetrating ability is required to steer the wheels of anti-GBM drug discovery endeavors. This Perspective presents various aspects of drug discovery (challenges in GBM drug discovery and delivery, therapeutic targets, and agents under clinical investigation). The comprehensively covered sections include the recent medicinal chemistry campaigns embarked upon to validate the potential of numerous enzymes/proteins/receptors as therapeutic targets in GBM.

Synthesis and Characterization of Antibiotic–Loaded Biodegradable Citrate Functionalized Mesoporous Hydroxyapatite Nanocarriers as an Alternative Treatment for Bone Infections

The continuing growth of bacterial resistance makes the top challenge for the healthcare system especially in bone-infections treatment. Current estimates reveal that in 2050 the death ratio caused by bacterial infections can be higher than cancer. The aim of this study is to provide an alternative to currently available bone-infection treatments. Here we designed mesoporous hydroxyapatite nanocarriers functionalized with citrate (Ctr–mpHANCs). Amoxicillin (AMX) is used as a model drug to load in Ctr–mpHANCs, and the drug loading was more than 90% due to the porous nature of nanocarriers. Scanning electron microscopy shows the roughly spherical morphology of nanocarriers, and the DLS study showed the approximate size of 92 nm. The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) specific surface area and pore diameter was found to be about 182.35 m²/g and 4.2 nm, respectively. We noticed that almost 100% of the drug is released from the AMX loaded Ctr–mpHANCs (AMX@Ctr–mpHANCs) in a pH-dependent manner within 3 d and 5 d at pH 2.0 and 4.5, respectively. The sustained drug release behaviour was observed for 15 d at pH 7.4 and no RBCs hemolysis by AMX@Ctr–mpHANCs. The broth dilution and colony forming unit (CFU) assays were used to determine the antimicrobial potential of AMX@Ctr–mpHANCs. It was observed in both studies that AMX@Ctr–mpHANCs showed a significant reduction in the bacterial growth of S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa as compared to Ctr–mpHANCs with no bacteria-killing. Thus, we proposed that Ctr–mpHANCs can be used as a drug carrier and a treatment option for bone infections caused by bacteria.

Methotrexate-Lactoferrin Targeted Exemestane Cubosomes for Synergistic Breast Cancer Therapy

While the treatment regimen of certain types of breast cancer involves a combination of hormonal therapy and chemotherapy, the outcomes are limited due to the difference in the pharmacokinetics of both treatment agents that hinders their simultaneous and selective delivery to the cancer cells. Herein, we report a hybrid carrier system for the simultaneous targeted delivery of aromatase inhibitor exemestane (EXE) and methotrexate (MTX). EXE was physically loaded within liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs), while MTX was chemically conjugated to lactoferrin (Lf) by carbodiimide reaction. The anionic EXE-loaded LCNPs were then coated by the cationic MTX–Lf conjugate via electrostatic interactions. The Lf-targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs exhibited a particle size of 143.6 ± 3.24 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.180. It showed excellent drug loading with an EXE encapsulation efficiency of 95% and an MTX conjugation efficiency of 33.33%. EXE and MTX showed synergistic effect against the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line with a combination index (CI) of 0.342. Furthermore, the Lf-targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs demonstrated superior synergistic cytotoxic activity with a combination index (CI) of 0.242 and a dose reduction index (DRI) of 34.14 and 4.7 for EXE and MTX, respectively. Cellular uptake studies demonstrated higher cellular uptake of Lf-targeted LCNPs into MCF-7 cancer cells than non-targeted LCNPs after 4 and 24 h. Collectively, the targeted dual drug-loaded LCNPs are a promising candidate offering combinational hormonal therapy/chemotherapy for breast cancer.

Nanocluster-Based Drug Delivery and Theranostic Systems: Towards Cancer Therapy

Over the last decades, the global life expectancy of the population has increased, and so, consequently, has the risk of cancer development. Despite the improvement in cancer therapies (e.g., drug delivery systems (DDS) and theranostics), in many cases recurrence continues to be a challenging issue. In this matter, the development of nanotechnology has led to an array of possibilities for cancer treatment. One of the most promising therapies focuses on the assembly of hierarchical structures in the form of nanoclusters, as this approach involves preparing individual building blocks while avoiding handling toxic chemicals in the presence of biomolecules. This review aims at presenting an overview of the major advances made in developing nanoclusters based on polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) and/or inorganic NPs. The preparation methods and the features of the NPs used in the construction of the nanoclusters were described. Afterwards, the design, fabrication and properties of the two main classes of nanoclusters, namely noble-metal nanoclusters and hybrid (i.e., hetero) nanoclusters and their mode of action in cancer therapy, were summarized.

Recent applications of cell-penetrating peptide guidance of nanosystems in breast and prostate cancer (Review)

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are small peptides from natural sources or designed from other protein sequences that can penetrate cell membranes. This property has been used in biomedicine to add them to biomolecules to improve their capacity for cell internalization and as a guidance tool for specific cell types. CPPs have been shown to enhance cellular uptake in vitro and in vivo, improving the efficacy of anticancer drugs such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel, while also limiting their cytotoxic effects on healthy cells and tissues. The current study reviews the internalization and major therapeutic results achieved from the functionalization of nanosystems with CPPs for guidance into breast and prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the practical results obtained are specifically discussed for use as a starting point for scientists looking to begin research in this field.

Recent Progress of RGD Modified Liposomes as Multistage Rocket Against Cancer

Cancer is a life-threatening disease, contributing approximately 9.4 million deaths worldwide. To address this challenge, scientific researchers have investigated molecules that could act as speed-breakers for cancer. As an abiotic drug delivery system, liposomes can hold both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, which promote a controlled release, accumulate in the tumor microenvironment, and achieve elongated half-life with an enhanced safety profile. To further improve the safety and impair the off-target effect, the surface of liposomes could be modified in a way that is easily identified by cancer cells, promotes uptake, and facilitates angiogenesis. Integrins are overexpressed on cancer cells, which upon activation promote downstream cell signaling and eventually activate specific pathways, promoting cell growth, proliferation, and migration. RGD peptides are easily recognized by integrin over expressed cells. Just like a multistage rocket, ligand anchored liposomes can be selectively recognized by target cells, accumulate at the specific site, and finally, release the drug in a specific and desired way. This review highlights the role of integrin in cancer development, so gain more insights into the phenomenon of tumor initiation and survival. Since RGD is recognized by the integrin family, the fate of RGD has been demonstrated after its binding with the acceptor’s family. The role of RGD based liposomes in targeting various cancer cells is also highlighted in the paper.

Nano-Delivery of a Novel Inhibitor of Polynucleotide Kinase/Phosphatase (PNKP) for Targeted Sensitization of Colorectal Cancer to Radiation-Induced DNA Damage

Inhibition of the DNA repair enzyme polynucleotide kinase/phosphatase (PNKP) increases the sensitivity of cancer cells to DNA damage by ionizing radiation (IR). We have developed a novel inhibitor of PNKP, i.e., A83B4C63, as a potential radio-sensitizer for the treatment of solid tumors. Systemic delivery of A83B4C63, however, may sensitize both cancer and normal cells to DNA damaging therapeutics. Preferential delivery of A83B4C63 to solid tumors by nanoparticles (NP) was proposed to reduce potential side effects of this PNKP inhibitor to normal tissue, particularly when combined with DNA damaging therapies. Here, we investigated the radio-sensitizing activity of A83B4C63 encapsulated in NPs (NP/A83) based on methoxy poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(α-benzyl carboxylate-ε-caprolactone) (mPEO-b-PBCL) or solubilized with the aid of Cremophor EL: Ethanol (CE/A83) in human HCT116 colorectal cancer (CRC) models. Levels of γ-H2AX were measured and the biodistribution of CE/A83 and NP/A83 administered intravenously was determined in subcutaneous HCT116 CRC xenografts. The radio-sensitization effect of A83B4C63 was measured following fractionated tumor irradiation using an image-guided Small Animal Radiation Research Platform (SARRP), with 24 h pre-administration of CE/A83 and NP/A83 to Luc⁺/HCT116 bearing mice. Therapeutic effects were analyzed by monitoring tumor growth and functional imaging using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and [¹⁸F]-fluoro-3’-deoxy-3’-L:-fluorothymidine ([¹⁸F]FLT) as a radiotracer for cell proliferation. The results showed an increased persistence of DNA damage in cells treated with a combination of CE/A83 or NP/A83 and IR compared to those only exposed to IR. Significantly higher tumor growth delay in mice treated with a combination of IR and NP/A83 than those treated with IR plus CE/A83 was observed. [¹⁸F]FLT PET displayed significant functional changes for tumor proliferation for the drug-loaded NP. This observation was attributed to the higher A83B4C63 levels in the tumors for NP/A83-treated mice compared to those treated with CE/A83. Overall, the results demonstrated a potential for A83B4C63-loaded NP as a novel radio-sensitizer for the treatment of CRC.

HPLC with fluorescence detection for the bioanalysis and pharmacokinetic study of Doxorubicin and Prodigiosin loaded on eco-friendly casein nanomicelles in rat plasma

A rapid, efficient, and sensitive liquid chromatographic assay hyphenated to fluorometric detector (HPLC-FLD) was developed and validated for the determination of doxorubicin (DXR) and prodigiosin (PDG) in rat plasma. The sample pre-treatment involves a protein precipitation with acetonitrile with satisfying extraction efficiency (98% and 85% for DXR and PDG, respectively). The chromatographic separation was accomplished using stationary phase: Agilent Zorbax Eclipse plus-C18 analytical column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) and gradient eluting mobile phase of ammonium acetate (pH = 3), acetonitrile and methanol with programmed fluorescence detection. As the proposed method has been validated, it was subsequently implemented to evaluate DXR and PDG loaded on novel eco-friendly Casein nano drug delivery system after intravenous injection in healthy rats. A comparative pharmacokinetics' study was carried out in rats for DXR in free form, DXR alone entrapped in the nanomicelle and DXR with PDG entrapped in the nano micelle. After testing the differences in pharmacokinetic parameters of the different formulations using ANOVA, the results showed insignificant differences among the tested parameters. This indicates that the presented nanomicelle delivery system has succeeded to incorporate PDG and DXR in a hydrophilic, safe, and potent formulation. This novel nanomicelle has negligible effect on the distribution and elimination of DXR.

Chimeric liposomes decorated with P407: an alternative biomaterial for producing stealth nano-therapeutics

The aim of the present study is the development and evaluation of the physicochemical properties of chimeric hydrogenated soya phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) and egg phosphatidylcholine (EggPC) liposomes with incorporated triblock copolymer Poloxamer P407 (P407). The physicochemical assay was held in water HPLC-grade and Foetal Bovine Serum (FBS), in order to determine whether these systems can be used as drug or antigen delivery nanosystems. Dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering (DLS/ELS) techniques were used for the measurement of the hydrodynamic diameter, the polydispersity index, and the ζ-potential of the prepared nanosystems. The incorporation of the P407 resulted in a size reduction of all systems. A decrease in the hydrodynamic diameter and polydispersity index were also found as a result of increasing the storage temperature from 4 °C to 25 °C, attributed to P407. The experiments that were carried out in FBS, showed that the addition of P407 improved systems stealth properties. Concluding, we propose P407 as a promising alternative to PEG in the development of lipid nanoparticles with optimized bio- and shelf-stability.

Antineoplastics Encapsulated in Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

Ideally, antineoplastic treatment aims to selectively eradicate cancer cells without causing systemic toxicity. A great number of antineoplastic agents (AAs) are available nowadays, with well-defined therapeutic protocols. The poor bioavailability, non-selective action, high systemic toxicity, and lack of effectiveness of most AAs have stimulated the search for novel chemotherapy protocols, including technological approaches that provide drug delivery systems (DDS) for gold standard medicines. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) are DDS that contain a core of solid and lipid liquids stabilised by surfactants. NLC have high upload capacity for lipophilic drugs, such as the majority of AAs. These nanoparticles can be prepared with a diversity of biocompatible (synthetic or natural) lipid blends, administered by different routes and functionalised for targeting purposes. This review focused on the research carried out from 2000 to now, regarding NLC formulations for AAs (antimetabolites, antimitotics, alkylating agents, and antibiotics) encapsulation, with special emphasis on studies carried out in vivo. NLC systems for codelivery of AAs were also considered, as well as those for non-classical drugs and therapies (natural products and photosensitisers). NLC have emerged as powerful DDS to improve the bioavailability, targeting and efficacy of antineoplastics, while decreasing their toxic effect in the treatment of different types of cancer.

Decapeptide Modified Doxorubicin Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Targeted Drug Delivery System against Prostate Cancer

Growing instances of prostate cancer with poor prognosis have become a challenging task in cancer therapy. Luteinizing-hormone-releasing-hormone (LHRH) receptors are overexpressed in prostate cancer cells. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated lipids exhibit superiority in terms of retention/circulation in biological systems. PEGylated dipalmitoylphosphatedylethanolamine (DPPE-PEG), covalently linked with 6-hydrazinopyridine-3-carboxylic-acid, was conjugated with new LHRH-receptor positive peptide analog (DPPE-PEG-HYNIC-d-Glu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-d-Asn-Leu-d-Gln-Pro-Gly-NH₂). Surface modified doxorubicin (DOX) loaded solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) was prepared using soylecithin, stearic acid and Poloxamer-188 by solvent emulsification/evaporation method for targeted delivery of DOX into prostate cancer cells. SLN, DOX loaded SLN (DSLN) and surface modified DSLN (M-DSLN) were characterized by means of their size, zeta potential, morphology, storage time, drug payload, and subsequent release kinetics studies. Homogeneity of surface morphology, upon modification of SLN, was revealed from the dynamic light scattering, atomic force microscopy, and scanning electron microscopic studies. Homogeneous adsolubilization of DOX throughout the hydrophobic moiety of SLN was established by the differential scanning calorimetric studies. Release of DOX were sustained in DSLN and M-DSLN. Cellular uptake and in vitro activities of formulations against LHRH positive PC3/SKBR3 cancer cell lines revealed higher cellular internalization, cytotoxicity that followed the sequence DOX < DSLN < M-DSLN. Dye staining and flow cytometry studies revealed higher apoptosis in cancer cells. Such receptor specific drug delivery systems are considered to have substantial potential in prostate cancer therapy.

Zoledronic acid-loaded lipidic nanoparticles enhance apoptosis and attenuate invasiveness by inhibiting epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HepG2 cancer cells

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of zoledronic acid (ZOL)-loaded lipidic nanoparticles (ZOL-NLCs) in enhancing the efficiency of paclitaxel (Pac) in the context of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and invasiveness of HepG₂ hepatocellular carcinoma cells. ZOL-NLCs were characterized in terms of zeta potential, particle size, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) as well as cell internalization. To measure the anti-proliferative effects of ZOL-NLCs, annexin-V/PI and MTT assays were employed. Real-time PCR and western blot analysis were performed to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying the apoptosis in response to the studied conditions. Furthermore, the transwell migration assay was applied to clarify the role of applied formulations on the invasiveness of HepG₂ cells. Our results demonstrated that the optimized ZOL had an average particle size of 105 ± 6 nm with a nearly narrow size distribution. The IC₅₀ values for ZOL and ZOL-NLCs were 90 ± 3.1 and 54.6 ± 2.4 µM, respectively. The population of apoptotic cells was increased from 17 ± 2% to 27 ± 4% (p < 0.05) in response to treatment with ZOL-NLCs. ZOL-loaded nanoparticles triggered the mRNA expression of Bax as pro-apoptotic marker and E-cadherin as epithelial one along with a decrease in mesenchymal marker, N-cadherin, and Bcl-xl as an anti-apoptotic marker in HepG₂ cells. These outcomes were consistent with western blot analysis of protein expressions. Besides, ZOL-incorporated lipidic nanoparticles reduced the migration of HepG₂ cells significantly. Our data suggest that the formulation of ZOL into lipidic nanoparticles can be considered a potential therapeutic approach that can enhance the efficacy of Pac chemotherapy.

Advanced nanomedicine approaches applied for treatment of skin carcinoma

Skin-cancer is the commonest malignancy affecting huge proportion of the population, reaching heights in terms of morbidity. The treatment strategies are presently focusing on surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, which eventually cause destruction to unaffected cells. To overcome this limitation, wide range of nanoscaled materials have been recognized as potential carriers for delivering selective response to cancerous cells and neoplasms. Nanotechnological approach has been tremendously exploited in several areas, owing to their functional nanometric dimensions. The alarming incidence of skin cancer engenders burdensome effects worldwide, which is further awakening innovational medicinal approaches, accompanying target specific drug delivery tools for coveted benefits to provide reduced toxicity and tackle proliferative episodes of skin cancer. The developed nanosystems for anti-cancer agents include liposomes, ethosomes, nanofibers, solid lipid nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles, which exhibit pronounced outcomes for skin carcinoma. In this review, skin cancer with its sub-types is explained in nutshell, followed by compendium of specific nanotechnological tools presented, in addition to therapeutic applications of drug-loaded nano systems for skin cancer.

Adverse Effects and Safety of Etirinotecan Pegol, a Novel Topoisomerase Inhibitor, in Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review

Background:

Due to the increasing prevalence of cancer and the inadequacy of current therapies, the development of novel antitumor pharmaceutics with higher efficacies and lower adverse effects is considered a fundamental tenet of contemporary cancer management. Poly-Ethylene-Glycol (PEG) attachment is a novel pharmaceutical technology to improve the efficacy and safety of chemotherapies. Etirinotecan Pegol (EP), also known as NKTR-102, is the PEGylated form of Irinotecan (CPT-11), which causes cancer cell apoptosis by inhibiting the topoisomerase I enzyme.

Objectives:

The present study reviews and evaluates various reports of the EP’s anti-tumor activity in various cancers.

Data Sources:

Studies were identified using the Scopus database, with no exclusions. The search terms included Etirinotecan Pegol and NKTR-102, which yielded 125 articles (66 and 59 articles, respectively). In addition, the clinicaltrials.gov website was used to find ongoing studies, which resulted in the addition of two studies.

Study Eligibility Criteria:

Subsequently, we excluded studies that were published in languages other than English, duplicate articles, and studies with no data.

Results:

This systematic review clarifies that EP possesses numerous advantages over many other medications, such as safety, efficacy, increased half-life, increased health-related quality of life, increased overall survival, increased progression-free survival, and decreasing the adverse events in the treatment of various cancers.

Conclusion:

Therefore, Etirinotecan Pegol may represent a major contribution to the treatment of various cancers in the future.

A Review of Chemotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy for Lung Cancer Treatment

Cancer is among the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Among the different types of cancers, lung cancer is considered to be the leading cause of death related to cancer and the most commonly diagnosed form of such disease. Chemotherapy remains a dominant treatment modality for many types of cancers at different stages. However, in many cases, cancer cells develop drug resistance and become nonresponsive to chemotherapy, thus, necessitating the exploration of alternative and /or complementary treatment modalities. Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) has emerged as an effective treatment modality for various malignant neoplasia and tumors. In PDT, the photochemical interaction of light, Photosensitizer (PS) and molecular oxygen produces Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), which induces cell death. Combination therapy, by using PDT and chemotherapy, can promote synergistic effect against this fatal disease with the elimination of drug resistance, and enhancement of the efficacy of cancer eradication. In this review, we give an overview of chemotherapeutic modalities, PDT, and the different types of drugs associated with each therapy. Furthermore, we also explored the combined use of chemotherapy and PDT in the course of lung cancer treatment and how this approach could be the last resort for thousands of patients that have been diagnosed by this fatal disease.

Ligand decorated biodegradable nanomedicine in the treatment of cancer

Cancer is one of the major global health problems, responsible for the second-highest number of deaths. The genetic and epigenetic changes in the oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes alter the regulatory pathways leading to its onset and progression. Conventional methods are used in appropriate combinations for the treatment. Surgery effectively treats localized tumors; however, it fails to treat metastatic tumors, leading to a spread in other organs, causing a high recurrence rate and death. Among the different strategies, the nanocarriers-based approach is highly sought for, but its nonspecific delivery can cause a profound side effect on healthy cells. Targeted nanomedicine has the advantage of targeting cancer cells specifically by interacting with the receptors overexpressed on their surface, overcoming its non-specificity to target healthy cells. Nanocarriers prepared from biodegradable and biocompatible materials are decorated with different ligands by encapsulating therapeutic or diagnostic agents or both to target cancer cells overexpressing the receptors. Scientists are now utilizing a theranostic approach to simultaneously evaluate nanocarrier bio-distribution and its effect on the treatment regime. Herein, we have summarized the recent 5-year efforts in the development of the ligands decorated biodegradable nanocarriers, as a targeted nanomedicine approach, which has been highly promising in the treatment of cancer.

Antibody conjugated lipid nanoparticles as a targeted drug delivery system for hydrophobic pharmaceuticals

Cancer remains a significant health issue worldwide. The most common group of chemotherapeutic agents are small-molecule drugs, which often are associated with toxic side-effects and non-specific delivery, leading to limited therapeutic effect. This paper describes the development of a targeted drug delivery system based on lipid nanoparticles for cancer therapy. The lipid nanoparticles consist of a lipid core conjugated to an albumin stealth coating and targeting antibodies through thiol chemistry synthesized utilizing a one-step method. Applying the developed method, lipid nanoparticles with diameters down to 87 nm, capable of encapsulating small molecule compounds were synthesized. Cellular uptake studies of the lipid nanoparticles loaded with the model drug Nile red demonstrated that stealth-coating reduced non-specific cell uptake by up to a 1000-fold compared to free drug. Moreover, antibody-conjugation led to a significant cellular retargeting. Finally, it was shown that the lipid nanoparticles undergo cellular uptake through the endocytic pathway. The lipid nanoparticles are simple to synthesize, stabile in serum and have the potential to be versatile targeted towards receptors selectively expressed by diseased cells using antibodies. Thus, the system may reduce the toxic side-effects of cancer drugs while improving their delivery to cancer cells, increasing the therapeutic effect.

The Oxygen-Generating Calcium Peroxide-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles Attenuate Hypoxia-Induced Chemoresistance in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Cancer response to chemotherapy is regulated not only by intrinsic sensitivity of cancer cells but also by tumor microenvironment. Tumor hypoxia, a condition of low oxygen level in solid tumors, is known to increase the resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer. Due to lack of target in TNBC, chemotherapy is the only approved systemic treatment. We evaluated the effect of hypoxia on chemotherapy resistance in TNBC in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Furthermore, we synthesized the calcium peroxide-modified magnetic nanoparticles (CaO₂-MNPs) with the function of oxygen generation to improve and enhance the therapeutic efficiency of doxorubicin treatment in the hypoxia microenvironment of TNBC. The results of gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) software showed that the hypoxia and autophagy gene sets are significantly enriched in TNBC patients. We found that the chemical hypoxia stabilized the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) protein and increased doxorubicin resistance in TNBC cells. Moreover, hypoxia inhibited the induction of apoptosis and autophagy by doxorubicin. In addition, CaO₂-MNPs promoted ubiquitination and protein degradation of HIF-1α. Furthermore, CaO₂-MNPs inhibited autophagy and induced apoptosis in TNBC cells. Our animal studies with an orthotopic mouse model showed that CaO₂-MNPs in combination with doxorubicin exhibited a stronger tumor-suppressive effect on TNBC, compared to the doxorubicin treatment alone. Our findings suggest that combined with CaO₂-MNPs and doxorubicin attenuates HIF-1α expression to improve the efficiency of chemotherapy in TNBC.

In vitro anticancer activity of hydrogen sulfide and nitric oxide alongside nickel nanoparticle and novel mutations in their genes in CRC patients

This study was carried out to assess the impact of nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) as well as scorpion venom on colorectal cancer (CRC) cells in the presence and/or absence of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and nitric oxide (NO) donors and to determine alterations in endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) and cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE) enzyme-producing genes in CRC patients. The IC₅₀ of both H₂S and NO donors, along with NiNPs, were determined. The CRC cells were treated for 24hrs, and the cytotoxic activities were assessed using the MTT test. Moreover, the apoptosis was determined after 24hrs and 48hrs using TUNEL assay. Furthermore, the mutations in the eNOS gene (intron 4, -786T>C and 894 G>T) and CSE gene (1364GT) were determined using direct sequencing. The IC₅₀ values for sodium disulfide (Na₂S) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) at 24hrs treatment were found to be 5 mM and 10⁻⁶ M, respectively, while the IC₅₀ value for 5-FU was reached after 5-days of treatment in CRC cell line. Both black and yellow scorpion venoms showed no inhibition of cell proliferation after 24hrs treatment. Furthermore, Na₂S showed a significant decrease in cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis. Moreover, a co-treatment of SNP and 5-FU resulted in inhibition of the cytotoxic effect of 5-FU, while a combination treatment of NiNPs with Na₂S, SNP, and 5-FU caused highly significant cytotoxicity. Direct sequencing reveals new mutations, mainly intronic variation in eNOS gene that has not previously been described in the database. These findings indicate that H₂S promotes the anticancer efficiency of 5-FU in the presence of NiNPs while NO has antiapoptotic activity in CRC cell lines.

A rapid and simple preparation of amphotericin B-loaded bacterial magnetite nanoparticles

Three-dimensional representation of amphotericin B molecules bound to magnetosomes derived from Magnetovibrio blakemorei strain MV-1T. Drug molecules are electrostatically adsorbed onto nanoparticles coated with positively charged poly-l-lysine.

Recent advances in the modification of carbon-based quantum dots for biomedical applications

Carbon-based quantum dots (CDs) are mainly divided into two sub-groups; carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and graphene quantum dots (GQDs), which exhibit outstanding photoluminescence (PL) properties, low toxicity, superior biocompatibility and facile functionalization. Regarding these features, they have been promising candidates for biomedical science and engineering applications. In this work, we reviewed the efforts made to modify these zero-dimensional nano-materials to obtain the best properties for bio-imaging, drug and gene delivery, cancer therapy, and bio-sensor applications. Five main surface modification techniques with outstanding results are investigated, including doping, surface functionalization, polymer capping, nano-composite and core-shell structures, and the drawbacks and challenges in each of these methods are discussed.

Engineering of CoSe2 Nanosheets via Vacancy Manipulation for Efficient Cancer Therapy

CoSe₂ nanosheets with different vacancy associates (i.e., V_SeSe, V_CoCoSe, V_CoSeSe, and V_CoCoCoSe) were synthesized by selecting different templates and calcination temperatures. The nanosheets having higher theoretical adsorption toward cellular membrane phospholipids exerted more damage to both artificial liposomes and cell membranes (V_SeSe > V_CoCoSe > V_CoCoCoSe > V_CoSeSe) and exhibited higher efficiency to kill tumor cells (e.g., A549 lung cancer cells and HeLa cervical cancer cells). Moreover, V_CoCoCoSe CoSe₂ nanosheets can be easily coated with the tumor-targeting protein transferrin (Tf), and these Tf-coated nanosheets (Tf-V_CoCoCoSe) drastically decreased the viability of various types of cancer cells (81%) without significantly damaging normal cells. Importantly, this treatment was more efficient in eliminating tumor tissues than the common chemotherapeutic drug oxaliplatin. Thus, this study offers proof of concept that manipulating the surface vacancies of CoSe₂ nanosheets could provide an efficient route for cancer therapy in a manner that could circumvent or minimize drug resistance development.

Legumain protease-activated tuftsin-functionalized nanoparticles for dual-targeting TAMs and cancer chemotherapy

M2 tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a pivotal role in cancer progression and therapy resistance. Inhibition of TAMs is of great significance to reshape the protumor environment to benefit therapeutic outcomes. In this work, we developed a novel TAMs and tumor cells dual-targeting nanoparticle (AT_pep-NPs) system for cancer chemotherapy by integrating a docetaxel (DTX)-loaded nanocarrier and a multi-function peptide AT_pep, which is composed of a phagocytosis-stimulating peptide-tuftsin (T_pep) fused with a substrate peptide-alanine-alanine-asparagine (AAN) of endoprotease legumain. In vitro protelytic and cellular uptake assays confirmed AT_pep-NPs can be responsively activated into T_pep-NPs by cleavage of legumain that is overexpressed in both tumor cells and TAMs, which then promoted tumor cells internalization and TAMs phagocytosis through neuropilin-1/Fc receptor pathways. Due to AAN deactivation effect, AT_pep-NPs can effectively decrease the T_pep-induced non-specific uptake by M1-polarized and normal macrophage during systemic circulation. Our results of in vivo experiments demonstrated AT_pep-NPs outperformed T_pep-NPs in tumor and TAMs dual-targeting delivery efficiency with markedly enhanced efficacy against both tumor growth inhibition and TAMs depletion. Overall, this study offers a novel approach for development of multitargeted delivery vehicle for improved cancer chemotherapy.

Development of Self-Associating SN-38-Conjugated Poly(ethylene oxide)-Poly(ester) Micelles for Colorectal Cancer Therapy

The clinical use of 7-ethyl-10-hydroxy-camptothecin (SN-38), which is the active metabolite of irinotecan, has been hampered because of its practical water-insolubility. In this study, we successfully synthesized two self-associating SN-38-polymer drug conjugates to improve the water-solubility of SN-38, while retaining its anticancer activity. The polymeric micellar SN-38 conjugates were composed of either methoxy-poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(α-benzyl carboxylate-ε-caprolactone) conjugated to SN-38 at the PBCL end (mPEO-b-PBCL/SN-38) or mPEO-block-poly(α-carboxyl-ε-caprolactone) attached to SN-38 from the pendent-free carboxyl site (mPEO-b-PCCL/SN-38). The chemical structure of block copolymers was confirmed by ¹H NMR. The physicochemical characterizations of their self-assembled structures including size, surface charge, polydispersity, critical micellar concentration, conjugation content and efficiency, morphology, kinetic stability, and in vitro release of SN-38 were compared between the two formulations. In vitro anticancer activities were evaluated by measuring cellular cytotoxicity and caspase activation by MTS and Caspase-Glo 3/7 assays, respectively. The hemolytic activity of both micellar structures against rat red blood cells was also measured. The results showed the formation of SN-38-polymeric micellar conjugates at diameters < 50 nm with a narrow size distribution and sustained release of SN-38 for both structures. The loading content of SN-38 in mPEO-b-PBCL and mPEO-b-PCCL were 11.47 ± 0.10 and 12.03 ± 0.17 (% w/w), respectively. The mPEO-b-PBCL/SN-38, end-capped micelles were kinetically more stable than mPEO-b-PCCL/SN-38. The self-assembled mPEO-b-PBCL/SN-38 and mPEO-b-PCCL/SN-38 micelles resulted in significantly higher cytotoxic effects than irinotecan against human colorectal cancer cell lines HCT116, HT-29, and SW20. The CRC cells were found to be 70-fold to 330-fold more sensitive to micellar SN-38 than irinotecan, on average. Both SN-38-incorporated micelles showed two-fold higher caspase-3/7 activation levels than irinotecan. The mPEO-b-PBCL/SN-38 micelles were not hemolytic, but mPEO-b-PCCL/SN-38 showed some hemolysis. The overall results from this study uphold mPEO-b-PBCL/SN-38 over mPEO-b-PCCL/SN-38 micellar formulation as an effective delivery system of SN-38 that warrants further preclinical investigation.

Thermosensitive Betulinic Acid-Loaded Magnetoliposomes: A Promising Antitumor Potential for Highly Aggressive Human Breast Adenocarcinoma Cells Under Hyperthermic Conditions

PURPOSE

Breast cancer presents one of the highest rates of prevalence around the world. Despite this, the current breast cancer therapy is characterized by significant side effects and high risk of recurrence. The present work aimed to develop a new therapeutic strategy that may improve the current breast cancer therapy by developing a heat-sensitive liposomal nano-platform suitable to incorporate both anti-tumor betulinic acid (BA) compound and magnetic iron nanoparticles (MIONPs), in order to address both remote drug release and hyperthermia-inducing features. To address the above-mentioned biomedical purposes, the nanocarrier must possess specific features such as specific phase transition temperature, diameter below 200 nm, superparamagnetic properties and heating capacity. Moreover, the anti-tumor activity of the developed nanocarrier should significantly affect human breast adenocarcinoma cells.

METHODS

BA-loaded magnetoliposomes and corresponding controls (BA-free liposomes and liposomes containing no magnetic payload) were obtained through the thin-layer hydration method. The quality and stability of the multifunctional platforms were physico-chemically analysed by the means of RAMAN, scanning electron microscopy-EDAX, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential and DSC analysis. Besides this, the magnetic characterization of magnetoliposomes was performed in terms of superparamagnetic behaviour and heating capacity. The biological profile of the platforms and controls was screened through multiple in vitro methods, such as MTT, LDH and scratch assays, together with immunofluorescence staining. In addition, CAM assay was performed in order to assess a possible anti-angiogenic activity induced by the test samples.

RESULTS

The physico-chemical analysis revealed that BA-loaded magnetoliposomes present suitable characteristics for the purpose of this study, showing biocompatible phase transition temperature, a diameter of 198 nm, superparamagnetic features and heating capacity. In vitro results showed that hyperthermia induces enhanced anti-tumor activity when breast adenocarcinoma MDA-MB-231 cells were exposed to BA-loaded magnetoliposomes, while a low cytotoxic rate was exhibited by the non-tumorigenic breast epithelial MCF 10A cells. Moreover, the in ovo angiogenesis assay endorsed the efficacy of this multifunctional platform as a good strategy for breast cancer therapy, under hyperthermal conditions. Regarding the possible mechanism of action of this multifunctional nano-platform, the immunocytochemistry of the MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma cells revealed a microtubule assembly modulatory activity, under hyperthermal conditions.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these findings indicate that BA-loaded magnetoliposomes, under hyperthermal conditions, might serve as a promising strategy for breast adenocarcinoma treatment.

TME-Responsive Polyprodrug Micelles for Multistage Delivery of Doxorubicin with Improved Cancer Therapeutic Efficacy in Rodents

It is of great significance to develop multifunctional biomaterials to effectively deliver anticancer drug to tumor cells for cancer therapy. Here, inspired by the specific tumor microenvironment (TME) cues, a unique multistage pH/redox-responsive polyprodrug composed of amphiphilic pH-sensitive diblock copolymer poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-b-poly(β-amino esters) conjugated with doxorubicin (DOX) via redox-sensitive disulfide bonds (mPEG-b-PAE-ss-DOX) is designed and developed. This polyprodrug can self-assemble into micelles (DOX-ss@PMs) at low concentration with high serum stability, indicating that DOX-ss@PMs have prolonged circulation time. The dual pH/redox-responsiveness of the multistage platform is thoroughly evaluated. In vitro results demonstrate that DOX-ss@PMs can highly accumulate at tumor site, followed by responding to the acidity for disassembly and effectively penetrating into the tumor cells. DOX is released from the platform due to the cleavage of disulfide bonds induced by high glutathione (GSH) concentration, thereby inducing the apoptosis of tumor cells. In vivo studies further reveal that multistage DOX-ss@PMs can more efficiently inhibit the growth of tumors and improve the survival of tumor-bearing mice in comparison to the free drug and control. These results imply that multistage delivery system might be a potential and effective strategy for drug delivery and DOX-ss@PMs could be a promising nanomedicine for cancer chemotherapy.