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Wan X, Tian C, Li Y, Zhou J, Qian S, Su L, Wang L. Effect of Y 2O 3 Addition on Microstructure and Properties of Laser Cladded Al-Si Coatings on AZ91D Magnesium Alloy. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 16:338. [PMID: 36614677 PMCID: PMC9822142 DOI: 10.3390/ma16010338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The effect of Y2O3 addition on the microstructure and properties of the laser cladded Al-Si alloy coating on the surface of AZ91D magnesium alloy was investigated in this study. The experimental results showed that the Al-Si + Y2O3 cladding layers contained α-Mg, Mg2Si, Al4MgY and a small amount of Al12Mg17 phases. The coarse dendrites, reticulated eutectic structures and massive phases in the coatings tended to be refined and gradually uniformly distributed with the increased amount of Y2O3. The introduction of Y2O3 into the cladding layer favored the improvement of microhardness and wear resistance due to the grain refinement strengthening and dispersion strengthening. The addition of Y2O3 also promoted the reduction of localized corrosion sites and made the corrosion surface smoother, implying that the corrosion resistance of the Y2O3-modified coatings was better than that of the unmodified cladding layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Wan
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Chuang Tian
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Yi Li
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Jingling Zhou
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Shuangqing Qian
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Lihong Su
- School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Li Wang
- School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
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2
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Liu J, Long X, Zhu H, Zhu W, Chen Z, He D, Song N, Wang X. Effects of La 2O 3contents on microstructure and properties of laser-cladded 5wt%CaB 6/HA bioceramic coating. Biomed Mater 2022; 17. [PMID: 35026746 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/ac4b44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In the present work, 5wt%CaB6/HA bioceramic coatings with different La2O3contents (0-0.6wt%) have been fabricated by a laser cladding technique on Ti-6Al-4V. The effects of La2O3 contents on microstructure and properties of the laser-cladded 5wt%CaB6/HA coatings have been carefully investigated. The results show that the microstructure is obviously refined, and the structure is relatively uniform after doping 0.2-0.4 wt% La2O3. As the La2O3 content increases, the corrosion resistance are found to increase firstly and then gradually decrease. The XRD analysis confirms that the amount of HA and TCP in the coating reaches maximum after doping 0.2wt% La2O3. The La2O3-doped coatings show a significantly higher bone-like apatite precipitation after immersion in SBF compared with La2O3-free coating. In vitro experiment also shows that 5wt%CaB6/HA bioceramic coatings with 0.2-0.4wt% La2O3 are more suitable for the attachment and proliferation of MG63 cells, exhibiting superior bioactivity and biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjing Liu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, 421001, CHINA
| | - Xin Long
- University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
| | - Hongmei Zhu
- University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
| | - Weihua Zhu
- School of Electrical Engineering, University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
| | - Zhiyong Chen
- School of Electrical Engineering, University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, 421001, CHINA
| | - Dong He
- University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
| | - Nini Song
- University of South China, University of South China Hengyang Hunan China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
| | - Xinlin Wang
- University of South China, University of South China, Hengyang City, Hunan Province, China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, CHINA
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3
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Li HC, Wang DG, Hu C, Dou JH, Yu HJ, Chen CZ. Effect of Na 2O and ZnO on the microstructure and properties of laser cladding derived CaO-SiO 2 ceramic coatings on titanium alloys. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 592:498-508. [PMID: 33730634 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.02.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To improve the bioactivity of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V), CaO-SiO2 coatings on titanium alloys were fabricated using laser cladding method. The effect of Na2O and ZnO on the microstructure and properties of the prepared coatings was discussed. The microstructure of the CaO-SiO2 coatings consists of cellular grains and cellular dendrites. The mutual diffusion of elements occurs between the coating and substrate. The base CaO-SiO2 coating is composed of different phases including CaTiO3, α-Ca2(SiO4), SiO2, TiO2 and CaO. The formation of CaTiO3 in the ceramic layer was analyzed through thermodynamics. Na2O has little influence on the microstructure, average hardness and wear resistance. When ZnO is added to the precursor, the microstructure turns to cell dendrite, and ZnO and Zn2SiO4 appear in the corresponding coating. The addition of ZnO reduces the average hardness and wear resistance of the ceramic layer. The in vitro soaking in SBF shows that the laser cladding coating has the ability to form an apatite layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Li
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education) and Shandong Engineering Research Center for Superhard Material, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
| | - D G Wang
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education) and Shandong Engineering Research Center for Superhard Material, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
| | - C Hu
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education) and Shandong Engineering Research Center for Superhard Material, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
| | - J H Dou
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education) and Shandong Engineering Research Center for Superhard Material, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
| | - H J Yu
- Key Laboratory of High-efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture (Ministry of Education) and National Demonstration Center for Experimental Mechanical Engineering Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China.
| | - C Z Chen
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials (Ministry of Education) and Shandong Engineering Research Center for Superhard Material, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China.
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4
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Kumar GA, Rambabu Y, Guntu RK, Sivaram K, Reddy MS, Rao CS, Venkatramu V, Kumar VR, Sriman Narayana Iyengar NC. Zr xCa 30-xP 70 thermoluminescent bio glass, structure and elasticity. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 119:104517. [PMID: 33872922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.104517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Phosphate glasses of calcium oxide have been well proved materials for various bio bones and dental implants. However, still there is a lot of scope and demand to produce efficient elastic bio implants and resource. In view of this, ZrxCa30-xP70 phosphate materials are prepared by using melt quenching method. Bio, physical, thermoluminescence and elastic techniques are used to characterize the samples. Additionally, simulated body fluid was prepared and it is used especially for bio techniques. Further, the glasses are taken for different dose (~0, 10, 20 & 50 kGy) of gamma irradiation around half an hour. And again similar techniques are used to characterize the samples. All the findings from bio, physical, thermoluminescence and elastic characterization results are analysed and took for better comparison with previous studies to develop various bio bone (or) bio dental resource. Structural reports suggests that the ZrxCa30-xP70 materials were glassy before immersion in SBF solution and immersed (~720 h) samples are showing partial ceramic nature. The weight loss and pH reports suggests them for alternative bio resource as a bio bones and dental implants. Observed thermal stability, microhardness and elastic modulus evaluations of ZrxCa30-xP70 materials in required standards are also additional advantage. Furthermore, thermoluminiscence (TL) under different γ-irradiation doses is reported for glasses with and without immersing in a simulated body fluid. The glasses lose TL intensity when immersed in simulated body fluid for nearly 720 h. This is useful to modulate bio-behaviour in terms of hydroxyapatite layer growth on the glass surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Anil Kumar
- Department of Physics, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, JNT University, Hyderabad, 501301, India
| | - Y Rambabu
- Department of Physics, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, JNT University, Hyderabad, 501301, India
| | - Ravi Kumar Guntu
- Department of Physics, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, JNT University, Hyderabad, 501301, India.
| | - K Sivaram
- Department of Physics, DMSSVH College of Engineering, Machilipatnam, 521 001, JNT University, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - M Sreenath Reddy
- Department of Physics, Osmania University, Hyderabad, 500 007, Telangana, India
| | - Ch Srinivasa Rao
- Department of Physics, Andhra Loyola College, Krishna University, Vijayawada, 520 008, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - V Venkatramu
- Department of Physics, DR.MRAR PG Center, Krishna University, Nuzvid, 521 201, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - V Ravi Kumar
- Department of Physics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, 522 510, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - N Ch Sriman Narayana Iyengar
- Department of Information Technology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, JNT University, Hyderabad, 501301, India
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Fu Q, Liu Q, Li L, Li X, Gu H, Sheng B. Effect of doping different Si source on Ca-P bioceramic coating fabricated by laser cladding. J Appl Biomater Funct Mater 2020; 18:2280800020917322. [PMID: 32552186 DOI: 10.1177/2280800020917322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The doping of silicon (Si) has been proved to improve the bioactivity of Ca-P ceramics. In light of this thinking, in the present study, Ca-P coatings with La2O3 by addition of 10 wt% SiO2 and 10 wt% diatomaceous earth (DE) were fabricated by laser cladding on Ti6Al4V, respectively. Coating doped without Si was also fabricated as the comparison group for the experiment. The effect of two different Si sources on the surface morphology, microstructure, microhardness, and bioactivity was systematically studied. The experimental results show that the Si-doped coating is of rough surface morphology, and the addition of DE significantly reduces the number of cracks and improves the microhardness. The X-ray diffraction results reveal that the amount of bioactive phase tricalcium-phosphate (TCP) and hydroxyapatite (HA) reaches maximum in the DE-doped coating. After soaking in simulated body fluid (SBF), the precipitate of bone-like apatite in the DE-doped coating is significantly higher than that of the other coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Fu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Qibin Liu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Long Li
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xingmao Li
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Huaizhang Gu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Sheng
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
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Laser Cladding of Al0.5CoCrCuFeNiSi High Entropy Alloy Coating without and with Yttria Addition on H13 Steel. CRYSTALS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst10040320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Al0.5CoCrCuFeNiSi high entropy alloy coating without and with a 1 wt.% Y2O3 addition was fabricated by laser cladding technique on H13 substrate. The results showed that the laser cladding coatings without and with Y2O3 addition consist of a mixture of body centered cubic (BCC) dendrites and face centered cubic (FCC) interdendrites. With the addition of Y2O3, the peaks of BCC dendrites in the coating shifted to leftwards, which is caused by the distortion of lattice due to the dissolution of Y with larger atomic radius. There exist cracks and porosities in the coating without Y2O3 addition. With Y2O3 addition, the cracks and porosities in the laser cladding coating were inhibited greatly. In addition, the microstructure of the coating with Y2O3 addition was refined due to the improving of the ratio of nucleation. The enhancement of properties, such as hardness, wear resistance and corrosion resistance, of the coating with Y2O3 addition came from the inhibition of cracks and porosities and the refinement of microstructure.
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7
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Fu Q, Liu Q, Li L, Li X, Gu H, Sheng B, Yang B. Study on microstructure, microhardness, bioactivity, and biocompatibility of La 2 O 3 -containing bioceramic coating doping SiO 2 fabricated by laser cladding. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2019; 108:2099-2107. [PMID: 31883307 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
To solve the lack of strength of calcium phosphate ceramic coatings in load-bearing applications, gradient Ca-P bioceramic coatings doped with La2 O3 and SiO2 are fabricated by laser cladding on Ti-6Al-4 V. The effect of SiO2 on microstructure, microhardness, bioactivity, and biocompatibility of coatings was investigated. The experimental results illustrate that the coating doped with La2 O3 and SiO2 has excellent metallurgical bonding. The XRD analysis confirms that the amount of hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate in the coating reached maximum when doping amount of SiO2 is 10 wt %. SiO2 -doped coatings show a significantly higher bone-like apatite precipitation after immersion in SBF than that of other coatings. in vitro experiment also shows that coating with 10 wt % SiO2 is more suitable for the attachment and proliferation of MG63 cells, indicating that coating with 10 wt % SiO2 exhibits best bioactivity and biocompatibility. These results suggest that the addition of SiO2 improves the bonding strength, bioactivity, and biocompatibility of coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Fu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Qibin Liu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Long Li
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xingmao Li
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Huaizhang Gu
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Bo Sheng
- College of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Bangcheng Yang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Laser Cladding of Ti-Based Ceramic Coatings on Ti6Al4V Alloy: Effects of CeO2 Nanoparticles Additive on Wear Performance. COATINGS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings9020109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ti-based ceramic coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates were successfully prepared through a laser cladding process using pre-placed starting materials of TiCN + SiO2 mixed powder without or with adding a 3 wt % CeO2 nanoparticles additive, aiming at improving the wear resistance of the Ti6Al4V alloy for biological applications. The effects of the CeO2 nanoparticles additive on the microstructure, microhardness, and wear performance of the coatings were analyzed in detail. The observations showed that the main compositions of the cladding coating were TiCN and TiN phase. Compared to the coatings without CeO2, the coatings modified with CeO2 nanoparticles led to more excellent mechanical properties. The average microhardness of the coatings modified with CeO2 nanoparticles was approximately 1230 HV0.2, and the wear volume loss of the coatings modified with CeO2 nanoparticles was approximately 14% less than that of the coatings without CeO2 under a simulated body fluid (SBF) lubrication environment. The major reasons included that the microstructure of the coatings modified with CeO2 nanoparticles was refined and compact granular crystalline. The wear mechanisms of the coatings were investigated from the worn surface of the coatings, wear debris, and the worn surface of the counter-body balls. The wear mechanisms of the coatings without CeO2 included abrasive wear, adhesive wear, and fatigue wear, while the wear mechanisms of the coatings modified with CeO2 nanoparticles included only abrasive wear and adhesive wear, because the fine microstructure of the coatings had an excellent resistance to fatigue wear.
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Chen T, Liu D, Wu F, Wang H. Effect of CeO₂ on Microstructure and Wear Resistance of TiC Bioinert Coatings on Ti6Al4V Alloy by Laser Cladding. MATERIALS 2017; 11:ma11010058. [PMID: 29301218 PMCID: PMC5793556 DOI: 10.3390/ma11010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To solve the lack of wear resistance of titanium alloys for use in biological applications, various prepared coatings on titanium alloys are often used as wear-resistant materials. In this paper, TiC bioinert coatings were fabricated on Ti6Al4V by laser cladding using mixed TiC and ZrO2 powders as the basic pre-placed materials. A certain amount of CeO2 powder was also added to the pre-placed powders to further improve the properties of the TiC coatings. The effects of CeO2 additive on the phase constituents, microstructures and wear resistance of the TiC coatings were researched in detail. Although the effect of CeO2 on the phase constituents of the coatings was slight, it had a significant effect on the microstructure and wear resistance of the coatings. The crystalline grains in the TiC coatings, observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM), were refined due to the effect of the CeO2. With the increase of CeO2 additive content in the pre-placed powders, finer and more compact dendrites led to improvement of the micro-hardness and wear resistance of the TiC coatings. Also, 5 wt % content of CeO2 additive in the pre-placed powders was the best choice for improving the wear properties of the TiC coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Chen
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing, Changsha 410083, China.
| | - Defu Liu
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing, Changsha 410083, China.
| | - Fan Wu
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
| | - Haojun Wang
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China.
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Effect of phosphate additives on the microstructure, bioactivity, and degradability of microarc oxidation coatings on Mg-Zn-Ca-Mn alloy. Biointerphases 2016; 11:031006. [PMID: 27440396 DOI: 10.1116/1.4959127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium phosphate coatings were prepared on the surface of self-designed Mg-Zn-Ca-Mn alloy using microarc oxidization technology. To characterize the microstructures, cross-section morphologies, and compositions of the coatings, the authors used scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy-disperse spectrometer, x-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Potentiodynamic polarization in the simulated body fluid (SBF) was used to evaluate the corrosion behaviors of the samples. An SBF immersion test was used to evaluate the coating bioactivity and degradability. After the immersion tests, some bonelike apatite formed on the coating surfaces indicate that bioactivity of the coatings is excellent. The coating prepared in electrolyte containing (NaPO3)6 had slower degradation rate after immersion test for 21 days.
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Quazi M, Fazal M, Haseeb A, Yusof F, Masjuki H, Arslan A. Effect of rare earth elements and their oxides on tribo-mechanical performance of laser claddings: A review. J RARE EARTH 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/s1002-0721(16)60061-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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Preparation and characterization of laser cladding wollastonite derived bioceramic coating on titanium alloy. Biointerphases 2015; 10:031007. [PMID: 26307502 DOI: 10.1116/1.4929415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The bioceramic coating is fabricated on titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) by laser cladding the preplaced wollastonite (CaSiO3) powders. The coating on Ti6Al4V is characterized by x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy, and attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared. The interface bonding strength is measured using the stretching method using an RGD-5-type electronic tensile machine. The microhardness distribution of the cross-section is determined using an indentation test. The in vitro bioactivity of the coating on Ti6Al4V is evaluated using the in vitro simulated body fluid (SBF) immersion test. The microstructure of the laser cladding sample is affected by the process parameters. The coating surface is coarse, accidented, and microporous. The cross-section microstructure of the ceramic layer from the bottom to the top gradually changes from cellular crystal, fine cellular-dendrite structure to underdeveloped dendrite crystal. The coating on Ti6Al4V is composed of CaTiO3, CaO, α-Ca2SiO4, SiO2, and TiO2. After soaking in the SBF solution, the calcium phosphate layer is formed on the coating surface.
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