Albumin-MnO2 gated hollow mesoporous silica nanosystem for modulating tumor hypoxia and synergetic therapy of cervical carcinoma

Albumin Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Nanoparticle-based systems are extensively investigated for drug delivery. Among others, with superior biocompatibility and enhanced targeting capacity, albumin appears to be a promising carrier for drug delivery. Albumin nanoparticles are highly favored in many disease therapies, as they have the proper chemical groups for modification, cell-binding sites for cell adhesion, and affinity to protein drugs for nanocomplex generation. Herein, this review summarizes the recent fabrication techniques, modification strategies, and application of albumin nanoparticles. We first discuss various albumin nanoparticle fabrication methods, from both pros and cons. Then, we provide a comprehensive introduction to the modification section, including organic albumin nanoparticles, metal albumin nanoparticles, inorganic albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanoparticle-based hybrids. We finally bring further perspectives on albumin nanoparticles used for various critical diseases.

Nature-inspired protein mineralization strategies for nanoparticle construction: advancing effective cancer therapy

Recently, nanotechnology has shown great potential in the field of cancer therapy due to its ability to improve the stability and solubility and reduce side effects of drugs. The biomimetic mineralization strategy based on natural proteins and metal ions provides an innovative approach for the synthesis of nanoparticles. This strategy utilizes the unique properties of natural proteins and the mineralization ability of metal ions to combine nanoparticles through biomimetic mineralization processes, achieving the effective treatment of tumors. The precise control of the mineralization process between proteins and metal ions makes it possible to obtain nanoparticles with the ideal size, shape, and surface characteristics, thereby enhancing their stability and targeting ability in vivo. Herein, initially, we analyze the role of protein molecules in biomineralization and comprehensively review the functions, properties, and applications of various common proteins and metal particles. Subsequently, we systematically review and summarize the application directions of nanoparticles synthesized based on protein biomineralization in tumor treatment. Specifically, we discuss their use as efficient drug delivery carriers and role in mediating monotherapy and synergistic therapy using multiple modes. Also, we specifically review the application of nanomedicine constructed through biomimetic mineralization strategies using natural proteins and metal ions in improving the efficiency of tumor immunotherapy.

Recent advances in photodynamic therapy combined with chemotherapy for cervical cancer: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Despite the evidence that photodynamic therapy (PDT) associated with chemotherapy presents great potential to overcome the limitations of monotherapy, little is known about the current status of this combination against cervical cancer. This systematic review aimed to address the currently available advances in combining PDT and chemotherapy in different research models and clinical trials of cervical cancer.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review based on PRISMA Statement and Open Science Framework review protocol using PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, LILACS, and Cochrane databases. We selected original articles focusing on 'Uterine Cervical Neoplasms' and 'Photochemotherapy and Chemotherapy' published in the last 10 years. The risk of bias in the studies was assessed using the CONSORT and SYRCLE tools.

RESULTS

Twenty-three original articles were included, focusing on HeLa cells, derived from endocervical adenocarcinoma and on combinations of several chemotherapeutics. Most of the combinations used modern drug delivery systems for improved simultaneous delivery and presented promising results with increased cytotoxicity compared to monotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Despite the scarcity of animal studies and the absence of clinical studies, the combination of chemotherapy with PDT presents a potential option for cervical cancer therapy requiring additional studies.

OSF REGISTRATION

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WPHN5 [Figure: see text].

Albumin Hydrogel-Coated Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle as a Carrier of Cationic Porphyrin and Ratiometric Fluorescence pH Sensor

Here, we report that a mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) coated with a fluoresceine-labeled bovine serum albumin (F-BSA) hydrogel layer works as a temperature-responsive nanocarrier for tetrakis-N-methylpyridyl porphyrin (TMPyP) and as a fluorescence ratiometric pH probe. F-BSA hydrogel-coated MSN containing TMPyP (F-BSA/MSN/TMPyP) was synthesized by thermal gelation of denatured F-BSA on the external surface of MSN. The F-BSA hydrogel layer was composed of an inner hard corona layer and an outer soft layer and was stable under physiological conditions. F-BSA/MSN/TMPyP exhibited temperature-dependent exponential release of TMPyP. In this release profile, the MSN was found to be a suitable host for stable encapsulation of tetracationic TMPyP by electrostatic interactions, and the F-BSA hydrogel layer mediated the diffusion of TMPyP from the MSN pore interior into the solution phase. Increasing temperature promoted partitioning of TMPyP from the pore interior to the F-BSA hydrogel layer, from where it was spontaneously released into the bulk solution phase by cation exchange. F-BSA/MSN/TMPyP also gave a linear ratiometric fluorescence response (1.3 per pH unit) in the pH range from 6.1 to 8.9.

Silicon-containing nanomedicine and biomaterials: materials chemistry, multi-dimensional design, and biomedical application

The invention of silica-based bioactive glass in the late 1960s has sparked significant interest in exploring a wide range of silicon-containing biomaterials from the macroscale to the nanoscale. Over the past few decades, these biomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential in diverse biomedical applications, considering their remarkable bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, facile surface functionalization, controllable synthesis, etc. However, to expedite the clinical translation and the unexpected utilization of silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials, it is highly desirable to achieve a thorough comprehension of their characteristics and biological effects from an overall perspective. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the state-of-the-art progress of silicon-composed biomaterials, including their classification, characteristics, fabrication methods, and versatile biomedical applications. Additionally, we highlight the multi-dimensional design of both pure and hybrid silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials and their intrinsic biological effects and interactions with biological systems. Their extensive biomedical applications span from drug delivery and bioimaging to therapeutic interventions and regenerative medicine, showcasing the significance of their rational design and fabrication to meet specific requirements and optimize their theranostic performance. Additionally, we offer insights into the future prospects and potential challenges regarding silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials. By shedding light on these exciting research advances, we aspire to foster further progress in the biomedical field and drive the development of innovative silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials with transformative applications in biomedicine.

Recent Innovations of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Combined with Photodynamic Therapy for Improving Cancer Treatment

Cancer is a global health burden and is one of the leading causes of death. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is considered an alternative approach to conventional cancer treatment. PDT utilizes a light-sensitive compound, photosensitizers (PSs), light irradiation, and molecular oxygen (O2). This generates cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can trigger necrosis and/ or apoptosis, leading to cancer cell death in the intended tissues. Classical photosensitizers impose limitations that hinder their clinical applications, such as long-term skin photosensitivity, hydrophobic nature, nonspecific targeting, and toxic cumulative effects. Thus, nanotechnology emerged as an unorthodox solution for improving the hydrophilicity and targeting efficiency of PSs. Among nanocarriers, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have gained increasing attention due to their high surface area, defined pore size and structure, ease of surface modification, stable aqueous dispersions, good biocompatibility, and optical transparency, which are vital for PDT. The advancement of integrated MSNs/PDT has led to an inspiring multimodal nanosystem for effectively treating malignancies. This review gives an overview of the main components and mechanisms of the PDT process, the effect of PDT on tumor cells, and the most recent studies that reported the benefits of incorporating PSs into silica nanoparticles and integration with PDT against different cancer cells.

Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are recognized as a prime example of nanotechnology applied in the biomedical field, due to their easily tunable structure and composition, diverse surface functionalization properties, and excellent biocompatibility. Over the past two decades, researchers have developed a wide variety of MSNs-based nanoplatforms through careful design and controlled preparation techniques, demonstrating their adaptability to various biomedical application scenarios. With the continuous breakthroughs of MSNs in the fields of biosensing, disease diagnosis and treatment, tissue engineering, etc., MSNs are gradually moving from basic research to clinical trials. In this review, we provide a detailed summary of MSNs in the biomedical field, beginning with a comprehensive overview of their development history. We then discuss the types of MSNs-based nanostructured architectures, as well as the classification of MSNs-based nanocomposites according to the elements existed in various inorganic functional components. Subsequently, we summarize the primary purposes of surface-functionalized modifications of MSNs. In the following, we discuss the biomedical applications of MSNs, and highlight the MSNs-based targeted therapeutic modalities currently developed. Given the importance of clinical translation, we also summarize the progress of MSNs in clinical trials. Finally, we take a perspective on the future direction and remaining challenges of MSNs in the biomedical field.

Metal-Organic Frameworks@Au Nanoreactor as an Oxidative Stress Amplifier for Enhanced Tumor Photodynamic Therapy through the Alleviation of Hypoxemia and the Depletion of Glutathione

Recently, photodynamic therapy (PDT) based on the generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) has drawn great attention in tumor treatment. However, the hypoxia tumor microenvironment (TME) inhibits the generation efficacy of ROS, and the high glutathione (GSH) level in TME could neutralize the generated ROS, both of which strongly reduce the therapeutic efficiency of PDT. In this work, we first constructed the porphyrinic metal-organic framework PCN-224. Then Au nanoparticles were decorated on the PCN-224 to obtain the PCN-224@Au. The decorated Au nanoparticles could not only produce O2 through the decomposition of H2O2 in tumor sites for enhancing the generation of 1O2 in PDT but also deplete glutathione through the strong interactions between Au and sulfhydryl groups on glutathione to weaken the antioxidant ability of tumor cells, thus amplifying the 1O2 damage to cancer cells. The in vitro and in vivo experiments totally exhibited that the as-prepared PCN-224@Au nanoreactor can be used as an oxidative stress amplifier for enhanced PDT, which provides a promising candidate to conquer the limitation of intratumor hypoxia and high GSH level on PDT of cancer.

The Role of Selenium and Manganese in the Formation, Diagnosis and Treatment of Cervical, Endometrial and Ovarian Cancer

Selenium (Se) and manganese (Mn) are essential micronutrients that are important elements of cell metabolism. They are involved in the composition of enzyme systems and regulate enzyme activity. Disturbances in the homeostasis of these micronutrients affect the development of many diseases and carcinogenesis, which can be linked to increased levels of oxidative stress and impaired antioxidant properties of many enzymes. Selenium has a very important function in maintaining immune-endocrine, metabolic and cellular homeostasis. Manganese, on the other hand, is important in development, digestion, reproduction, antioxidant defense, energy production, immune response and regulation of neuronal activity. We review the role of selenium and manganese and their effects on tumor growth, metastasis potential and remodeling of the microenvironment. We also describe their role as potential biomarkers in the diagnosis and the potential for the use of Se- and Mn-containing compounds in composition for the treatment of cancer of the reproductive organs.

Natural Biopolymers as Smart Coating Materials of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

In recent years, the functionalization of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) with different types of responsive pore gatekeepers have shown great potential for the formulation of drug delivery systems (DDS) with minimal premature leakage and site-specific controlled release. New nanotechnological approaches have been developed with the objective of utilizing natural biopolymers as smart materials in drug delivery applications. Natural biopolymers are sensitive to various physicochemical and biological stimuli and are endowed with intrinsic biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. Their use as biocompatible smart coatings has extensively been investigated in the last few years. This review summarizes the MSNs coating procedures with natural polysaccharides and protein-based biopolymers, focusing on their application as responsive materials to endogenous stimuli. Biopolymer-coated MSNs, which conjugate the nanocarrier features of mesoporous silica with the biocompatibility and controlled delivery provided by natural coatings, have shown promising therapeutic outcomes and the potential to emerge as valuable candidates for the selective treatment of various diseases.

Advances of MnO2 nanomaterials as novel agonists for the development of cGAS-STING-mediated therapeutics

As an essential micronutrient, manganese plays an important role in the physiological process and immune process. In recent decades, cGAS-STING pathway, which can congenitally recognize exogenous and endogenous DNA for activation, has been widely reported to play critical roles in the innate immunity against some important diseases, such as infections and tumor. Manganese ion (Mn²⁺) has been recently proved to specifically bind with cGAS and activate cGAS-STING pathway as a potential cGAS agonist, however, is significantly restricted by the low stability of Mn²⁺ for further medical application. As one of the most stable forms of manganese, manganese dioxide (MnO₂) nanomaterials have been reported to show multiple promising functions, such as drug delivery, anti-tumor and anti-infection activities. More importantly, MnO₂ nanomaterials are also found to be a potential candidate as cGAS agonist by transforming into Mn²⁺, which indicates their potential for cGAS-STING regulations in different diseased conditions. In this review, we introduced the methods for the preparation of MnO₂ nanomaterials as well as their biological activities. Moreover, we emphatically introduced the cGAS-STING pathway and discussed the detailed mechanisms of MnO₂ nanomaterials for cGAS activation by converting into Mn²⁺. And we also discussed the application of MnO₂ nanomaterials for disease treatment by regulating cGAS-STING pathway, which might benefit the future development of novel cGAS-STING targeted treatments based on MnO₂ nanoplatforms.

Current trends in the use of human serum albumin for drug delivery in cancer

INTRODUCTION

Human serum albumin is the most abundant transport protein in plasma, which has recently been extensively utilized to form nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer. The primary reason for selecting albumin protein as drug delivery cargo is its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity. Moreover, the albumin structure containing three homologous domains constituted of a single polypeptide (585 amino acid) incorporates various hydrophobic drugs by non-covalent interactions. Albumin shows active tumor targeting via their interaction with gp60 and SPARC proteins abundant in the tumor-associated endothelial cells and the tumor microenvironment.

AREAS COVERED

The review discusses the importance of albumin as a drug-carrier system, general procedures to prepare albumin NPs, and the current trends in using albumin-based nanomedicines to deliver various chemotherapeutic agents. The various applications of albumin in the nanomedicines, such as NPs surface modifier and fabrication of hybrid/active-tumor targeted NPs, are delineated based on current trends.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicines have the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment. However, clinical translation is limited majorly due to the lack of suitable nanomaterials offering systemic stability, optimum drug encapsulation, tumor-targeted delivery, sustained drug release, and biocompatibility. The potential of albumin could be explored in nanomedicines fabrication for superior treatment outcomes in cancer.

Manganese-based hollow nanoplatforms for MR imaging-guided cancer therapies

Theranostic nanoplatforms integrating diagnostic and therapeutic functions have received considerable attention in the past decade. Among them, hollow manganese (Mn)-based nanoplatforms are superior since they combine the advantages of hollow structures and the intrinsic theranostic features of Mn²⁺. Specifically, the hollow cavity can encapsulate a variety of small-molecule drugs, such as chemotherapeutic agents, photosensitizers and photothermal agents, for chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), respectively. After degradation in the tumor microenvironment (TME), the released Mn²⁺ is able to act simultaneously as a magnetic resonance (MR) imaging contrast agent (CA) and as a Fenton-like agent for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). More importantly, synergistic treatment outcomes can be realized by reasonable and optimized design of the hollow nanosystems. This review summarizes various Mn-based hollow nanoplatforms, including hollow Mn_xO_y, hollow matrix-supported Mn_xO_y, hollow Mn-doped nanoparticles, hollow Mn complex-based nanoparticles, hollow Mn-cobalt (Co)-based nanoparticles, and hollow Mn-iron (Fe)-based nanoparticles, for MR imaging-guided cancer therapies. Finally, we discuss the potential obstacles and perspectives of these hollow Mn-based nanotheranostics for translational applications.

Hollow Multicomponent Capsules for Biomedical Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Hollow capsules with multi-shelled or multicomponent structures are essential materials for various applications. Biomedical applications like disease diagnosis, therapy, and monitoring have special significance as they aim to improve health conditions. This review demonstrated a comprehensive overview of hollow, multifunctional structures incorporating meaningful use of nanotechnology and its’ unique prospects in medicine such as patient-specific treatment, multimodal imaging, multimodal therapy, simultaneous delivery of drugs and imaging probes, and actively targeted delivery. The internal hollow cavity provides safe and controlled drug release while also enabling transport of functional moieties to target sites. This review explored the performance of different organic, inorganic, and metallic multicomponent capsules that have been reported for biomedical applications, mainly diagnostic imaging and drug delivery. Material compositions, morphologies, and synthesis strategies involved in fabricating such multifunctional systems have been discussed in detail. It is expected that with time, more sophisticated and precise systems will come to light as the outcome of ongoing concentrated research efforts.

Tumor microenvironment and nanotherapeutics: intruding the tumor fort

Over recent years, advancements in nanomedicine have allowed new approaches to diagnose and treat tumors. Nano drug delivery systems exploit the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and enter the tumor tissue's interstitial space. However, tumor barriers play a crucial role, and cause inefficient EPR or the homing effect. Mounting evidence supports the hypothesis that the components of the tumor microenvironment, such as the extracellular matrix, and cellular and physiological components collectively or cooperatively hinder entry and distribution of drugs, and therefore, limit the theragnostic applications of cancer nanomedicine. This abnormal tumor microenvironment plays a pivotal role in cancer nanomedicine and was recently recognized as a promising target for improving nano-drug delivery and their therapeutic outcomes. Strategies like passive or active targeting, stimuli-triggered nanocarriers, and the modulation of immune components have shown promising results in achieving anticancer efficacy. The present review focuses on the tumor microenvironment and nanoparticle-based strategies (polymeric, inorganic and organic nanoparticles) for intruding the tumor barrier and improving therapeutic effects.

Current trends in smart mesoporous silica-based nanovehicles for photoactivated cancer therapy

Photoactivated therapeutic strategies (photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy), due to the adjusted therapeutic area, time and light dosage, have prevailed for the fight against tumors. Currently, the monotherapy with limited treatment effect and undesired side effects is gradually replaced by multimodal and multifunctional nanosystems. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) with unique physicochemical advantages, such as huge specific surface area, controllable pore size and morphology, functionalized modification, satisfying biocompatibility and biodegradability, are considered as promising candidates for multimodal photoactivated cancer therapy. Excitingly, the innovative nanoplatforms based on the mesoporous silica nanoparticles provide more and more effective treatment strategies and display excellent antitumor potential. Given the rapid development of antitumor strategies based on MSNs, this review summarizes the current progress in MSNs-based photoactivated cancer therapy, mainly consists of (1) photothermal therapy-related theranostics; (2) photodynamic therapy-related theranostics; (3) multimodal synergistic therapy, such as chemo-photothermal-photodynamic therapy, phototherapy-immunotherapy and phototherapy-radio therapy. Based on the limited penetration of irradiation light in photoactivated therapy, the challenges faced by deep-seated tumor therapy are fully discussed, and future clinical translation of MSNs-based photoactivated cancer therapy are highlighted.

One-step preparation of bioactive enzyme/inorganic materials

Simultaneous exfoliation of crystalline α-zirconium phosphate (α-ZrP) nanosheets and enzyme binding, induced by shearing, without the addition of any toxic additives is reported here for the first time. These materials were thoroughly characterized and used for applications. The bulk α-ZrP material (20 mg mL^-1) was exfoliated with low concentrations of a protein such as bovine serum albumin (BSA, 3 mg mL^-1) in a shear reactor at 10k rpm for <80 minutes. Exfoliation was monitored by powder X-ray diffraction with samples displaying a gradual but complete loss of the 7.6 Å (002) peak, which is characteristic of bulk α-ZrP. The fully exfoliated sample loaded with the protein was characterized by transmission and scanning electron microscopy in addition to other biophysical methods. Lysozyme, glucose oxidase, met-hemoglobin, and ovalbumin also induced exfoliation and directly produced enzyme/ZrP biocatalysts. Thus, exfoliation, biophilization and enzyme binding are accomplished in a single step. Several factors contributed to the exfoliation kinetics, and the rate increased with α-ZrP and BSA concentrations and decreased with pH. However, the exfoliation efficiency inversely depended on the isoelectric point of the protein with ovalbumin (pI = 4.5) being the best and lysozyme (pI = 11.1) being the worst. A strong correlation between the protein size and exfoliation efficiency was noted, and the latter suggests the role of hydrodynamic factors in the process. Exfoliation was also achieved by simple stirring using a magnetic stirrer, under low volumes, and model enzymes, indicating 60-90% retention of bound enzymatic activities. The addition of BSA to enzymes as the diluent and stabilizing agent also prevents enzymes from the denaturing effect caused by stirring. This new method requires no pre-treatment of α-ZrP with toxic exfoliating agents such as tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide and provides bioactive enzyme/inorganic materials in a single step. These protein-loaded biocompatible nanosheets may be useful for biocatalysis and biomedical applications.

Novel nanomedicines to overcome cancer multidrug resistance

Chemotherapy remains a powerful tool to eliminate malignant cells. However, the efficacy of chemotherapy is compromised by the frequent emergence of intrinsic and acquired multidrug resistance (MDR). These chemoresistance modalities are based on a multiplicity of molecular mechanisms of drug resistance, including : 1) Impaired drug uptake into cancer cells; 2) Increased expression of ATP-binding cassette efflux transporters; 3) Loss of function of pro-apoptotic factors; 4) Enhanced DNA repair capacity; 5) Qualitative or quantitative alterations of specific cellular targets; 6) Alterations that allow cancer cells to tolerate adverse or stressful conditions; 7) Increased biotransformation or metabolism of anticancer drugs to less active or completely inactive metabolites; and 8) Intracellular and intercellular drug sequestration in well-defined organelles away from the cellular target. Hence, one of the major aims of cancer research is to develop novel strategies to overcome cancer drug resistance. Over the last decades, nanomedicine, which focuses on targeted delivery of therapeutic drugs into tumor tissues using nano-sized formulations, has emerged as a promising tool for cancer treatment. Therefore, nanomedicine has been introduced as a reliable approach to improve treatment efficacy and minimize detrimental adverse effects as well as overcome cancer drug resistance. With rationally designed strategies including passively targeted delivery, actively targeted delivery, delivery of multidrug combinations, as well as multimodal combination therapy, nanomedicine paves the way towards efficacious cancer treatment and hold great promise in overcoming cancer drug resistance. Herein, we review the recent progress of nanomaterials used in medicine, including liposomal nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles, to surmount cancer multidrug resistance. Finally, the future perspectives of the application of nanomedicine to reverse cancer drug resistance will be addressed.

Drug delivery carriers with therapeutic functions

Design of micro- or nanocarriers for drug delivery has primarily been focused on properties such as hydrophobicity, biodegradability, size, shape, surface charge, and toxicity, so that they can achieve optimal delivery with respect to drug loading, release kinetics, biodistribution, cellular uptake, and biocompatibility. Incorporation of stimulus-sensitive moieties into the carriers would lead to "smart" delivery systems. A further evolution would be to endow the carrier with a therapeutic function such that it no longer serves as a mere passive entity to release the drug at the target tissue but can be viewed as a therapeutic agent in itself. In this review, we will discuss recent and ongoing efforts over the past decade to design therapeutic drug carriers that confer a biological benefit, including ROS scavenging or generating, pro- or anti-inflammatory, and immuno-evasive properties, to enhance the overall therapeutic efficacy of the delivery systems.

Indocyanine Green-Based Theranostic Nanoplatform for NIR Fluorescence Image-Guided Chemo/Photothermal Therapy of Cervical Cancer

Purpose

Indocyanine green (ICG) is a favorable fluorescence nanoprobe for its strong NIR-I fluorescence emission and good photothermal capabilities. However, the stability and tumor targeting ability of ICG is poor, which limits its further applications. To further improve the photothermal and therapeutic efficiency of ICG, bovine serum albumin (BSA) was utilized to encapsulate the ICG and the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded to form the BSA@ICG-DOX theranostic nanoplatform.

Methods

In this study, ICG-loaded BSA nanoparticles (NPs) and the BSA@ICG-DOX NPs were fabricated using reprecipitation methods. Next, the tumour inhibition ability and biocompatibility of the NPs were evaluated. A subcutaneous xenografted nude mice model was established and imaging guided synergetic therapy was performed with the assistance of BSA@ICG-DOX NPs under 808 nm laser irradiation.

Results

The BSA@ICG NPs exhibited strong NIR-I fluorescence emission, excellent photothermal properties, biocompatibility, and tumor targeting ability. To further improve the therapeutic efficiency, the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into the BSA@ICG NPs to form the BSA@ICG-DOX theranostic nanoplatform. The BSA@ICG-DOX NPs were spherical with an average size of ~194.7 nm. The NPs had high encapsulation efficiency (DOX: 19.96% and ICG: 60.57%), and drug loading content (DOX: 0.95% and ICG: 3.03%). Next, excellent NIR-I fluorescence and low toxicity of the BSA@ICG-DOX NPs were verified. Targeted NIR-I fluorescence images were obtained after intravenous injection of the NPs into the subcutaneous cervical tumors of the mice.

Conclusion

To improve the anti-tumor efficiency of the ICG@BSA NPs, the chemotherapeutic drug DOX was loaded into the BSA@ICG NPs. The NIR excitation/emission and targeted BSA@ICG-DOX NPs enables high-performance diagnosis and chemo/photothermal therapy of subcutaneous cervical tumors, providing a promising approach for further biomedical applications.

Albumin-Coated Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles of Docetaxel: Preparation, Characterization, and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

The potential of albumin-coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (A-HMSNs) to optimize the chemotherapeutic efficacy of docetaxel (DTX) was explored. The synthesized A-DTX-HMSNs had a nanometric size range, offered large surface area with numerous pores, and offered high drug entrapment and loading, that is, 79.18% ± 1.4% and 19.11% ± 1.30%, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry studies confirmed drug loading and the presence of albumin onto the developed systems, and the drug release followed Higuchi profile. A-HMSNs significantly enhanced the pharmacokinetic profile of DTX by eightfold vis-à-vis the pure DTX. The enhanced plasma levels (C_max, T_max, area under the curve), prolonged drug release, long circulation time, lower clearance, hemocompatability, and substantially higher drug loading offered by these nanocarriers inherit promise of a safer and efficacious formulation of DTX.

A smart MnO2-doped graphene oxide nanosheet for enhanced chemo-photodynamic combinatorial therapy via simultaneous oxygenation and glutathione depletion

The combination of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy provides a promising approach for enhanced tumor eradication by overcoming the limitations of each individual therapeutic modality. However, tumor is pathologically featured with extreme hypoxia together with the adaptable overexpression of anti-oxidants, such as glutathione (GSH), which greatly restricts the therapeutic efficiency. Here, a combinatorial strategy was designed to simultaneously relieve tumor hypoxia by self-oxygenation and reduce intracellular GSH level to sensitize chemo-photodynamic therapy. In our system, a novel multi-functional nanosystem based on MnO₂-doped graphene oxide (GO) was developed to co-load cisplatin (CisPt) and a photosensitizer (Ce6). With MnO₂ doping, the nanosystem was equipped with intelligent functionalities: (1) catalyzes the decomposition of H₂O₂ into oxygen to relieve the tumor hypoxia; (2) depletes GSH level in tumor cells, and (3) concomitantly generates Mn²⁺ to proceed Fenton-like reaction, all of which contribute to the enhanced anti-tumor efficacy. Meanwhile, the surface hyaluronic acid (HA) modification could facilitate the targeted delivery of the nanosystem into tumor cells, thereby resulting in amplified cellular toxicity, as well as tumor growth inhibition in nude mice model. This work sheds a new light on the development of intelligent nanosystems for synergistic combination therapy via regulating tumor microenvironment.

In Vivo Regenerable Cerium Oxide Nanozyme-Loaded pH/H2O2-Responsive Nanovesicle for Tumor-Targeted Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapies

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapies (PTTs) are both promising strategies for effective tumor therapy. However, the absence of O2 at tumor sites hinders the sustained response of photosensitizers. Here, we develop a recycled cerium oxide (CeO2) catalase nanozyme-loaded hyaluronic acid nanovesicle to address the hypoxic tumor microenvironments and targeted delivery of the photosensitizers [indocyanine green (ICG)] to tumors. A polysaccharide complex effectively modifies the surface of a polyethylenimine phenylboronic acid nanostructure to achieve the CeO2 nanozyme-loading nanovesicles that exhibit both tumor-targeted enhancement and an improved hypoxic microenvironment. Also, the hydrogen peroxide responsiveness and acid-sensitive cleavage of phenylboronic acid specifically disintegrate the ICG/nanozyme coloaded nanovesicles in the tumor microenvironment. The in vitro synergistic tests and tumor suppression rate tests indicated that the cerium oxide nanozyme significantly improves the outcomes of PDT via cerium-element valence state recycling and hypoxia improvement, thus enhancing the tumor suppression efficiency. This pH/H2O2-responsive nanozyme/ICG codelivery system provides a good carrier model for improving the tumor microenvironment and increasing the efficiency of tumor-targeted PTT and PDT therapies.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as Carriers for Biomolecules in Cancer Therapy

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) offer many advantageous properties for applications in the field of nanobiotechnology. Loading of small molecules into MSNs is straightforward and widely applied, but with the upswing of both research and commercial interest in biological drugs in recent years, also biomacromolecules have been loaded into MSNs for delivery purposes. MSNs possess many critical properties making them a promising and versatile carrier for biomacromolecular delivery. In this chapter, we review the effects of the various structural parameters of MSNs on the effective loading of biomacromolecular therapeutics, with focus on maintaining stability and drug delivery performance. We also emphasize recent studies involving the use of MSNs in the delivery of biomacromolecular drugs, especially for cancer treatment.

BSA-Stabilized Mesoporous Organosilica Nanoparticles Reversed Chemotherapy Resistance of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer by Increasing Drug Uptake and Reducing Cellular Efflux

Anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is a highly aggressive and the most lethal type of thyroid cancer. The standard-of-care for unresectable ATC is radiotherapy and chemotherapy, usually based on doxorubicin (Dox). However, most patients develop resistance shortly after treatment. To overcome the drug resistance, we synthesized the mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (MONPs) loaded with Dox and stabilized the nanocomposites by bovine serum albumin (BSA). The surface area and pore volume of MONPs were 612.653 m²/g and 0.589 cm³/g. The loading capacity of Dox-MONPs reached 47.02%. Compared to Dox-MONPs and free Dox, BSA-Dox-MONPs had more durable tumor-killing power on both drug-sensitive cell line HTh74 and drug-resistant cell line HTh74R. The cellular uptake of BSA-Dox-MONPs was 28.14 and 65.53% higher than that of Dox-MONP in HTh74 and HTh74R. Furthermore, the BSA coating decreased the efflux rate of nanocomposites in HTh74 (from 38.95 to 33.05%) and HTh74R (from 43.03 to 32.07%). In summary, BSA-Dox-MONPs reversed the chemotherapy resistance of ATC cells via increased drug uptake and inhibited drug efflux, offering a promising platform for the treatment of chemo-resistant ATC.

A Review of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Delivery Systems in Chemo-Based Combination Cancer Therapies

Chemotherapy is an important anti-tumor treatment in clinic to date, however, the effectiveness of traditional chemotherapy is limited by its poor selectivity, high systemic toxicity, and multidrug resistance. In recent years, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have become exciting drug delivery systems (DDS) due to their unique advantages, such as easy large-scale production, adjustable uniform pore size, large surface area and pore volumes. While mesoporous silica-based DDS can improve chemotherapy to a certain extent, when used in combination with other cancer therapies MSN based chemotherapy exhibits a synergistic effect, greatly improving therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we discuss the applications of MSN DDS for a diverse range of chemotherapeutic combination anti-tumor therapies, including phototherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy and other less common modalities. Furthermore, we focus on the characteristics of each nanomaterial and the synergistic advantages of the combination therapies. Lastly, we examine the challenges and future prospects of MSN based chemotherapeutic combination therapies.

Albumin-based nanoparticles: a promising strategy to overcome cancer drug resistance

Circumvention of cancer drug resistance is one of the major investigations in nanomedicine. In this regard, nanotechnology-based drug delivery has offered various implications. However, protein-based nanocarriers have been a versatile choice compared to other nanomaterials, provided by their favorable characteristics and safety profiles. Specifically, albumin-based nanoparticles have been demonstrated to be an effective drug delivery system, owing to the inherent targeting modalities of albumin, through gp60- and SPARC-mediated receptor endocytosis. Furthermore, surface functionalization was exploited for active targeting, due to albumin’s abundance of carboxylic and amino groups. Stimuli-responsive drug release has also been pertained to albumin nano-systems. Therefore, albumin-based nanocarriers could potentially overcome cancer drug resistance through bypassing drug efflux, enhancing drug uptake, and improving tumor accumulation. Moreover, albumin nanocarriers improve the stability of various therapeutic cargos, for instance, nucleic acids, which allows their systemic administration. This review highlights the recent applications of albumin nanoparticles to overcome cancer drug resistance, the nano-fabrication techniques, as well as future perspectives and challenges.

Retooling Cancer Nanotherapeutics' Entry into Tumors to Alleviate Tumoral Hypoxia

Anti-hypoxia cancer nanomedicine (AHCN) holds exciting potential in improving oxygen-dependent therapeutic efficiencies of malignant tumors. However, most studies regarding AHCN focus on optimizing structure and function of nanomaterials with presupposed successful entry into tumor cells. From such a traditional perspective, the main barrier that AHCN needs to overcome is mainly the tumor cell membrane. However, such an oversimplified perspective would neglect that real tumors have many biological, physiological, physical, and chemical defenses preventing the current state-of-the-art AHCNs from even reaching the targeted tumor cells. Fortunately, in recent years, some studies are beginning to intentionally focus on overcoming physiological barriers to alleviate hypoxia. In this Review, the limitations behind the traditional AHCN delivery mindset are addressed and the key barriers that need to be surmounted before delivery to cancer cells and some good ways to improve cell membrane attachment, internalization, and intracellular retention are summarized. It is aimed to contribute to Review literature on this emerging topic through refreshing perspectives based on this work and what is also learnt from others. This Review would therefore assist AHCNs researchers to have a quick overview of the essential information and glean thought-provoking ideas to advance this sub-field in cancer nanomedicine.

Hyaluronic acid targeted and pH-responsive nanocarriers based on hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles for chemo-photodynamic combination therapy

In this work, a pH-responsive and tumor targeted multifunctional drug delivery system (RB-DOX@HMSNs-N = C-HA) was designed to realize chemo-photodynamic combination therapy. Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNs) was served as the host material to encapsulate doxorubicin (DOX) and photosensitizer rose bengal (RB). Hyaluronic acid (HA) was modified on the surface of HMSNs via pH-sensitive Schiff base bonds as gatekeeper as well as targeted agent. Characterization results indicated the successful preparation of HMSNs-N = C-HA with appropriate diameter of 170 nm around and the nanocarriers displayed superior drug loading capacity (15.30 % for DOX and 12.78 % for RB). Notably, the results of in vitro drug release experiments confirmed that the system possessed good pH-sensitivity, which made it possible to release cargoes in slight acid tumor micro-environments. Significantly, the in vitro cell uptake and cytotoxicity assay results fully proved that RB-DOX@HMSNs-N = C-HA could precisely target murine mammary carcinoma (4T1) cells and effectively inhibit tumor cells viability with chemo-photodynamic synergistic therapy. Overall, our work (RB-DOX@HMSNs-N = C-HA) provides an efficient approach for the development of chemo-photodynamic combination therapy.