A novel self-assembled micelles based on stearic acid modified schizophyllan for efficient delivery of paclitaxel

Effects of side-chain lengths on the structure and properties of anhydrides modified starch micelles: Experimental and DPD simulation studies

Anhydride-modified starch micelles have great potential in the delivery of hydrophobic guest molecules. This study aimed to experimentally explore the effects of side-chain lengths on the structure and properties of anhydride-modified starch micelles, and to visualize the self-assembly and loading process of these micelles through Dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. Starch micelles could only form when the carbon chain length exceeded four. The highly hydrophobic C18 starch micelle exhibited the minimum particle size (65 nm) and maximum loading capability (59.10 μg/mg). For each addition carbon atom in the anhydride side chains, the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of starch micelles decreased average of 1.79 %. Thermodynamic results showed that the micellization was an entropy-dominated driven process, and longer carbon chains enhanced the stability of starch micelles. DPD results showed that the starch chains formed the small clusters then spherical aggregates and finally core-shell structure spherical micelle. Curcumin was loaded into micelles by adjoint aggregation-micellization-adsorption mechanism. Overall, this study provides microscopic insight into the micellization and drug-loading mechanisms for anhydrides modified starch micelles.

Delivery of Lutein by Using Modified Burdock Polysaccharide Aggregates: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro Release Properties

Novel self-assembled aggregates of stearic acid (SA)-modified burdock polysaccharide (BP) for loading lutein were constructed, and the release and absorption properties of lutein in the aggregates in simulated gastrointestinal fluid were investigated. Three different degrees of substitution (DS) of SA-BPs were used to embed lutein, resulting in the encapsulation efficiency exceeding 90%. The aggregates were uniformly spherical, with a particle size range of 227-341 nm. XRD analysis revealed that lutein was present in a non-crystalline state within the aggregates. FT-IR and FS analysis demonstrated that lutein was located in the hydrophobic domains of SA-BP. The highest bioavailability of lutein in these aggregates reached 4.36 times that in the unmodified samples. These aggregates were able to remain stable in gastric juice and enhance the release rate of lutein in intestinal fluid. The transport of lutein-loaded SA-BP aggregates in Caco-2 cells competed with P-glycoprotein inhibitors, mainly promoting the transmembrane absorption of lutein through caveolae (or lipid raft)-related and clathrin-dependent endocytosis pathways. The above results suggest that SA-BP aggregates have the potential to be promising carriers for the efficient delivery of hydrophobic lutein.

Chemically engineered plasmonic Au-gallium oxide nanocomposites for harsh environment applications: an investigation into thermal and chemical robustness

Enhanced thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties of different metal nanoparticle morphologies integrated with metal oxides have been reported in multiple instances. The chemical and material robustness of metal nanoparticles incorporated surficially and into the bulk of distinct as well as spontaneously formed morphologies of metal oxides through solution-based and microwave-based approaches are investigated in this study. These composites were tested for their chemical and material robustness by exposing films formed on quartz substrates to high temperatures (800 °C) in an air ambient as well as to extreme conditions of pH, often encountered in harsh environment applications such as sensing and catalysis. The changes in the optical properties and crystallinity have been studied using in situ absorption and ex situ X-ray diffraction analyses and electron microscopy. The trends observed with respect to the changes in the plasmonic absorbance were validated theoretically and found to be in reasonable agreement with the experimental data. Confirmations of the phenomena occurring in different morphologies and architectures were thereby corroborated through careful interpretations from experiments and predictions from theoretical models. We, therefore, report a simple solution-based process for achieving engineered harsh environment-compatible nanocomposites through studies specifically tailored for such applications such as catalysis, sensing, energy storage, and enhanced luminescence.

The function and application of edible fungal polysaccharides

Edible fungi, commonly known as mushrooms, are precious medicinal and edible homologous gifts from nature to us. Edible fungal polysaccharides (EFPs) are a variety of bioactive macromolecular which isolated from fruiting bodies, mycelia or fermentation broths of edible or medicinal fungus. Increasing researches have confirmed that EFPs possess multiple biological activities both in vitro and in vivo settings, including antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and regulating intestinal flora activities. As a result, they have emerged as a prominent focus in the healthcare, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Fungal EFPs have safe, non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible properties with low immunogenicity, bioadhesion ability, and antibacterial activities, presenting diverse potential applications in the food industries, cosmetic, biomedical, packaging, and new materials. Moreover, varying raw materials, extraction, purification, chemical modification methods, and culture conditions can result in variances in the structure and biological activities of EFPs. The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensively and systematically organized information on the structure, modification, biological activities, and potential applications of EFPs to support their therapeutic effects and health functions. This review provides new insights and a theoretical basis for prospective investigations and advancements in EFPs in fields such as medicine, food, and new materials.

Emulsion for stabilizing β-carotene and curcumin prepared directly using a continuous phase of polysaccharide-rich Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth

In this study, we examined the effect of Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth (SCFB) rich in polysaccharides (SCFP) on the stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene and curcumin. An SCFB-stabilized oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion (SCFBe) was prepared using SCFB as the continuous phase, and then evaluated for storage stability using an SCFP-based emulsion (SCFPe) as the control. The findings revealed that SCFBe is more stable at 60 °C than SCFPe, and stratification or droplet size varied at differing pH levels (3-9) and concentrations of Na+ (0.1-0.5 M) and Ca2+ (0.01-0.05 M). Since the absolute value of the zeta potential of SCFBe is much lower at 60 °C than that at 4 °C and 25 °C, a higher temperature (60 °C) may enhance the reactivity of polysaccharides and proteins in SCFB to improve the stability of SCFBe. Both the protective impact of SCFB on functional food molecules and their capacity to block lipid oxidation increased as polysaccharide content improved. The bioaccessibility of β-carotene after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion is 11.18 %-12.28 %, whereas that of curcumin is 31.64 %-33.00 %. By fermenting edible and medicinal fungi in liquid, we created a unique and environmentally friendly approach for getting food-grade emulsifiers without extraction.

Electrosprayed Stearic-Acid-Coated Ethylcellulose Microparticles for an Improved Sustained Release of Anticancer Drug

Sustained release is highly desired for "efficacious, safe and convenient" drug delivery, particularly for those anticancer drug molecules with toxicity. In this study, a modified coaxial electrospraying process was developed to coat a hydrophobic lipid, i.e., stearic acid (SA), on composites composed of the anticancer drug tamoxifen citrate (TC) and insoluble polymeric matrix ethylcellulose (EC). Compared with the electrosprayed TC-EC composite microparticles M1, the electrosprayed SA-coated hybrid microparticles M2 were able to provide an improved TC sustained-release profile. The 30% and 90% loaded drug sustained-release time periods were extended to 3.21 h and 19.43 h for M2, respectively, which were significantly longer than those provided by M1 (0.88 h and 9.98 h, respectively). The morphology, inner structure, physical state, and compatibility of the components of the particles M1 and M2 were disclosed through SEM, TEM, XRD, and FTIR. Based on the analyses, the drug sustained-release mechanism of multiple factors co-acting for microparticles M2 is suggested, which include the reasonable selections and organizations of lipid and polymeric excipient, the blank SA shell drug loading, the regularly round shape, and also the high density. The reported protocols pioneered a brand-new manner for developing sustained drug delivery hybrids through a combination of insoluble cellulose gels and lipid using modified coaxial electrospraying.

Recent developments in natural biopolymer based drug delivery systems

Targeted delivery of drug molecules to diseased sites is a great challenge in pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences. Fabrication of drug delivery systems (DDS) to target and/or diagnose sick cells is an effective means to achieve good therapeutic results along with a minimal toxicological impact on healthy cells. Biopolymers are becoming an important class of materials owing to their biodegradability, good compatibility, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and long blood circulation time and high drug loading ratio for both macros as well as micro-sized drug molecules. This review summarizes the recent trends in biopolymer-based DDS, forecasting their broad future clinical applications. Cellulose chitosan, starch, silk fibroins, collagen, albumin, gelatin, alginate, agar, proteins and peptides have shown potential applications in DDS. A range of synthetic techniques have been reported to design the DDS and are discussed in the current study which is being successfully employed in ocular, dental, transdermal and intranasal delivery systems. Different formulations of DDS are also overviewed in this review article along with synthesis techniques employed for designing the DDS. The possibility of these biopolymer applications points to a new route for creating unique DDS with enhanced therapeutic qualities for scaling up creative formulations up to the clinical level.

Traversing the diverse avenues of exopolysaccharides-based nanocarriers in the management of cancer

Exopolysaccharides are unique polymers generated by living organisms such as algae, fungi and bacteria to protect them from environmental factors. After a fermentative process, these polymers are extracted from the medium culture. Exopolysaccharides have been explored for their anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory effects. Specifically, they have acquired massive attention in novel drug delivery strategies owing to their indispensable properties like biocompatibility, biodegradability, and lack of irritation. Exopolysaccharides such as dextran, alginate, hyaluronic acid, pullulan, xanthan gum, gellan gum, levan, curdlan, cellulose, chitosan, mauran, and schizophyllan exhibited excellent drug carrier properties. Specific exopolysaccharides, such as levan, chitosan, and curdlan, have demonstrated significant antitumor activity. Moreover, chitosan, hyaluronic acid and pullulan can be employed as targeting ligands decorated on nanoplatforms for effective active tumor targeting. This review shields light on the classification, unique characteristics, antitumor activities and nanocarrier properties of exopolysaccharides. In addition, in vitro human cell line experiments and preclinical studies associated with exopolysaccharide-based nanocarriers have also been highlighted.

Nano delivery system for paclitaxel: Recent advances in cancer theranostics

Paclitaxel is one of the most effective chemotherapeutic drugs which processes the obvious curative effect for a broad range of cancers including breast, ovarian, lung, and head & neck cancers. Though some novel paclitaxel-loaded formulations have been developed, the clinical application of the paclitaxel is still limited due to its toxicity and solubility issues. Over the past decades, we have seen rapid advances in applying nanocarriers in paclitaxel delivery systems. The nano-drug delivery systems offer unique advantages in enhancing the aqueous solubility, reducing side effects, increasing permeability, prolonging circulation half-life of paclitaxel. In this review, we summarize recent advances in developing novel paclitaxel-loaded nano delivery systems based on nanocarriers. These nanocarriers show great potentials in overcoming the disadvantages of pure paclitaxel and as a result improving the efficacy.

Green synthesis of bovine serum albumin/oxidized gum Arabic nanocomposite as pH-responsive carrier for controlled release of piperine and the molecular docking study

A safe drug carrier was synthesized by albumin (BSA) and oxidized gum arabic (OGA). Piperine (PIP) was loaded into BSA/OGA nanobiocomposites by desolvation method. A set of experiments were designed by considering different contents of OGA (5, 7.5 and 10 mg) and PIP (1 and 2 mg). The presence of the band at 1600-1660 cm^-1 in FTIR spectra revealed the successful interaction between OGA and BSA. PIP2-BSA/OGA5 was selected as a suitable carrier due to its smaller size (<300 nm) and higher loading efficiency (1.5 ± 0.2 %). The encapsulation efficiency of PIP into BSA/OGA5 was 57.6 ± 2 %. The average size, polydispersity index and zeta potential of PIP2-BSA/OGA5 were 292 ± 4.4 nm, 0.185 ± 0.03 and - 24.4 ± 1.7 mV, respectively. SEM and TEM images proved the formation of spherical-shaped nanoparticles. The disappearance of endothermic peak belonging to free PIP in DSC thermogram of PIP2-BSA/OGA5 evidenced its encapsulation into carrier. PIP2-BSA/OGA5 exhibited the sustained drug release. The cell viability of MCF-7 cells after 48 h exposure to BSA/OGA5, PIP2-BSA/OGA5 and free PIP was reported 90 %, 40.1 % and 30.6 %, respectively. The molecular docking study reported that the binding affinity of PIP for BSA/OGA nanocomposite was -8.7 kcal/mol indicating the acceptable stability of the prepared drug carrier.

Caffeic Acid-Conjugated Budesonide-Loaded Nanomicelle Attenuates Inflammation in Experimental Colitis

Ulcerative colitis is a multifactorial disease of the gastrointestinal tract which is caused due to chronic inflammation in the colon; it usually starts from the lower end of the colon and may spread to other portions of the large intestine, if left unmanaged. Budesonide (BUD) is a synthetically available second-generation corticosteroidal drug with potent local anti-inflammatory activity. The pharmacokinetic properties, such as extensive first-pass metabolism and quite limited bioavailability, reduce its therapeutic efficacy. To overcome the limitations, nanosized micelles were developed in this study by conjugating stearic acid with caffeic acid to make an amphiphilic compound. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacological potential of BUD-loaded micelles in a mouse model of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. Micelles were formulated by the solvent evaporation method, and their physicochemical characterizations show their spherical shape under microscopic techniques like atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The in vitro release experiment shows sustained release behavior in physiological media. These micelles show cytocompatible behavior against hTERT-BJ cells up to 500 μg/mL dose, evidenced by more than 85% viable cells. BUD-loaded micelles successfully normalized the disease activity index and physical observation of colon length. The treatment with BUD-loaded micelles alleviates the colitis severity as analyzed in histopathology and efficiently, overcoming the disease severity via downregulation of various related cytokines (MPO, NO, and TNF-α) and inflammatory enzymes such as COX-2 and iNOS. Results of the study suggest that BUD-loaded nano-sized micelles effectively attenuate the disease conditions in colitis.

Natural Small-Molecule-Based Carrier-Free Self-Assembly Library Originated from Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine

The carrier-free self-assembly of small molecules opens a new window for the development of nanomaterials. This study is dedicated to developing binary small-molecular self-assemblies derived from phytochemicals in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Among them, Rhei Radix et Rhizoma and Coptidis Rhizoma are a common pair used in clinics for thousands of years. Here, we found that there were numerous spherical supramolecular nanoparticles (NPs) originated from Rhei Radix et Rhizoma and Coptidis Rhizoma decoction. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to analyze the composition of the supramolecules, and a total of 119 phytochemicals were identified (23 anthraquinones, 31 alkaloids, 24 organic acids, 8 tannins, and other components). Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) showed that the interaction between Rhei Radix et Rhizoma and Coptidis Rhizoma was a spontaneous exothermic reaction, indicating that their phytochemicals had the property of self-assembly and interacted to form supramolecules in the decocting process. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV, IR, NMR, and ITC were used to verify that rhein and coptisine could self-assemble into nanofibers (Rhe-Cop NFs), while emodin and coptisine could self-assemble into nanoparticles (Emo-Cop NPs). The formation mechanism analysis of the self-assemblies revealed that they were induced by electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and π-π stacking, forming nanospheres of about 50 nm and nanofibers. The current study not only provides an idea of discovering carrier-free self-assemblies from traditional herbal medicine decoction but also supplies a reference for the design of binary self-assembly of small molecules in the future.

Encapsulation of polyphenols in pH-responsive micelles self-assembled from octenyl-succinylated curdlan oligosaccharide and its effect on the gut microbiota

An amphiphilic polymer based on octenyl succinic anhydride-modified curdlan oligosaccharide (MCOS) was synthesized. The critical micelle concentration of MCOS was 3.91 μg·mL-1. MCOS could self-assemble into spherical micelles with a particle size of 230.1 nm and a zeta potential of - 37.9 mV. When used for polyphenol encapsulation, the loading capacity of curcumin and quercetin-co-encapsulated micelles was higher than that of single-polyphenol encapsulated micelles. In vitro gastrointestinal release test showed that the MCOS micelle presented a pH-dependent release, released a little polyphenol in simulated gastric fluid, but presented sustained release in the simulated intestinal fluid. The gastrointestinal-digested polyphenol-loaded micelles exhibited excellent antioxidant ability. In vitro human fecal fermentation indicated that the MCOS carrier could promote the production of short-chain fatty acids by gut microbiota and exhibited the highest relative abundance of Megamonas. In addition, the supplementation of curcumin and quercetin-co-loaded MCOS micelles increased the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and inhibited the growth of Escherichia_Shigella. These findings indicated that the MCOS carrier can be potentially used for the colon-targeted delivery of hydrophobic polyphenols due to its pH-responsive property.

Research progress on natural β-glucan in intestinal diseases

β-Glucan, an essential natural polysaccharide widely distributed in cereals and microorganisms, exhibits extensive biological activities, including immunoregulation, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor properties, and flora regulation. Recently, increasing evidence has shown that β-glucan has activities that may be useful for treating intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer. The advantages of β-glucan, which include its multiple roles, safety, abundant sources, good encapsulation capacity, economic development costs, and clinical evidence, indicate that β-glucan is a promising polysaccharide that could be developed as a health product or medicine for the treatment of intestinal disease. Unfortunately, few reports have summarized the progress of studies investigating natural β-glucan in intestinal diseases. This review comprehensively summarizes the structure-activity relationship of β-glucan, its pharmacological mechanism in IBD and colorectal cancer, its absorption and transportation mechanisms, and its application in food, medicine, and drug delivery, which will be beneficial to further understand the role of β-glucan in intestinal diseases.

Sorafenib-Entrapped, Self-Assembled Pullulan–Stearic Acid Biopolymer-Derived Drug Delivery System to PLC/PRF/5 Hepatocellular Carcinoma Model

Purpose

This study aimed to design a prototypic drug delivery system (DDS) made of an amphiphilic, pullulan (Pull)-derived biodegradable polymer for targeting the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) overexpressed in HCC. Stearic acid (SA) was conjugated to increase the hydrophobicity of pullulan (Pull-SA).

Methods

Pullulan (Pull) was linked to stearic acid (SA) after functional group modifications via EDC/NHS chemistry and characterized. Sorafenib tosylate (SRFT) was entrapped in pullulan–stearic acid nanoparticles (Pull-SA-SRFT) and its particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE), loading capacity (LC), and release efficiency was measured. The competence of Pull-SA-SRFT over SRFT in vitro was assessed using the ASGPR over-expressing PLC/PRF/5 hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line. This was done by studying cytotoxicity by MTT assay and chromosome condensation assay, early apoptosis by annexin-Pi staining, and late apoptosis by live–dead assay. The cellular uptake study was performed by incorporating coumarin-6 (C6) fluorophore in place of SRFT in Pull-SA conjugates. A biodistribution study was conducted in Swiss-albino mice to assess the biocompatibility and targeting properties of SRFT and Pull-SA-SRFT to the liver and other organs at 1, 6, 24, and 48 h.

Results

The characterization studies of the copolymer confirmed the successful conjugation of Pull-SA. The self-assembled amphiphilic nanocarrier could proficiently entrap the hydrophobic drug SRFT to obtain an entrapment efficiency of 95.6% (Pull-SA-SRFT). Characterization of the synthesized nanoparticles exhibited highly desirable nanoparticle characteristics. In vitro, apoptotic studies urged that Pull-SA-SRFT nanoparticle was delivered more efficiently to HCC than SRFT. The cellular uptake study performed, gave propitious results in 4 hrs. The biodistribution study conducted in immunocompetent mice suggested that Pull-SA-SRFT was delivered more than SRFT to the liver when compared to other organs, and that the system was biocompatible.

Conclusion

Pull-SA-SRFT is a promisingly safe, biodegradable, cell-specific nanocarrier and a potential candidate to target hydrophobic drugs to HCC.

Biocompatible Nanoparticles Based on Amphiphilic Random Polypeptides and Glycopolymers as Drug Delivery Systems

In this research, the development and investigation of novel nanoobjects based on biodegradable random polypeptides and synthetic non-degradable glycopolymer poly(2-deoxy-2-methacrylamido-d-glucose) were proposed as drug delivery systems. Two different approaches have been applied for preparation of such nanomaterials. The first one includes the synthesis of block-random copolymers consisting of polypeptide and glycopolymer and capable of self-assembly into polymer particles. The synthesis of copolymers was performed using sequential reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) and ring-opening polymerization (ROP) techniques. Amphiphilic poly(2-deoxy-2-methacrylamido-d-glucose)-b-poly(l-lysine-co-l-phenylalanine) (PMAG-b-P(Lys-co-Phe)) copolymers were then used for preparation of self-assembled nanoparticles. Another approach for the formation of polypeptide-glycopolymer particles was based on the post-modification of preformed polypeptide particles with an oxidized glycopolymer. The conjugation of the polysaccharide on the surface of the particles was achieved by the interaction of the aldehyde groups of the oxidized glycopolymer with the amino groups of the polymer on particle surface, followed by the reduction of the formed Schiff base with sodium borohydride. A comparative study of polymer nanoparticles developed with its cationic analogues based on random P(Lys-co-d-Phe), as well as an anionic one—P(Lys-co-d-Phe) covered with heparin––was carried out. In vitro antitumor activity of novel paclitaxel-loaded PMAG-b-P(Lys-co-Phe)-based particles towards A549 (human lung carcinoma) and MCF-7 (human breast adenocarcinoma) cells was comparable to the commercially available Paclitaxel-LANS.

Synthesis and Biological Investigation of Bile Acid-Paclitaxel Hybrids

Chenodeoxycholic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid (CDCA and UDCA, respectively) have been conjugated with paclitaxel (PTX) anticancer drugs through a high-yield condensation reaction. Bile acid-PTX hybrids (BA-PTX) have been investigated for their pro-apoptotic activity towards a selection of cancer cell lines as well as healthy fibroblast cells. Chenodeoxycholic-PTX hybrid (CDC-PTX) displayed cytotoxicity and cytoselectivity similar to PTX, whereas ursodeoxycholic-PTX hybrid (UDC-PTX) displayed some anticancer activity only towards HCT116 colon carcinoma cells. Pacific Blue (PB) conjugated derivatives of CDC-PTX and UDC-PTX (CDC-PTX-PB and UDC-PTX-PB, respectively) were also prepared via a multistep synthesis for evaluating their ability to enter tumor cells. CDC-PTX-PB and UDC-PTX-PB flow cytometry clearly showed that both CDCA and UDCA conjugation to PTX improved its incoming into HCT116 cells, allowing the derivatives to enter the cells up to 99.9%, respect to 35% in the case of PTX. Mean fluorescence intensity analysis of cell populations treated with CDC-PTX-PB and UDC-PTX-PB also suggested that CDC-PTX-PB could have a greater ability to pass the plasmatic membrane than UDC-PTX-PB. Both hybrids showed significant lower toxicity with respect to PTX on the NIH-3T3 cell line.

Enhanced exopolysaccharide yield and antioxidant activities of Schizophyllum commune fermented products by the addition of Radix Puerariae

To increase the production of exopolysaccharides (EPS) and expand the application of Schizophyllum commune (S. commune) fermentation liquid, the traditional Chinese medicine Radix Puerariae (RP) with outstanding biological activity was selected as a culture additive to improve the EPS yield and enhance the antioxidant activity of fermented products from S. commune. The effects of three independent factors: A: initial pH (5.0-6.0), B: concentration of RP (10-14 g L-1), and C: inoculum size (8-12%, v/v) on the EPS yield were evaluated. The results of response surface methodology (RSM) showed that the optimal fermentation conditions were: A: 5.40, B: 12.80 g L-1, and C: 10.0%. The optimal yield of EPS was 8.41 ± 0.12 mg mL-1, which showed an insignificant (p > 0.05) difference with the predicted value (8.45 mg mL-1). The fermented supernatants cultured from RP-supplemented medium (SC-RP) or regular medium (SC) were collected for further study. FT-IR analysis of EPS-1 (purified from SC) and EPS-2 (purified from SC-RP) showed that their structures were consistent, indicating that the addition of RP did not affect the structure of schizophyllan (SPG). In addition, compared with SC, the in vitro antioxidant activities of SC-RP were significantly improved with ORAC values and FRAP values increasing by 11.56-fold and 14.69-fold, respectively. There was a significant correlation among the phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity of SC-RP in this study. Besides, SC-RP was detected to contain more than 25 bioactive ingredients compared with that of SC, which may play a key role in its antioxidant activities. Thus, these results indicated that RP enhanced the yield of SPG and improved the antioxidant activity of the fermented products by S. commune. Accordingly, the fermentation liquid of S. commune with the addition of RP may have potential application in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries.

Micellar Drug Delivery Systems Based on Natural Biopolymers

The broad diversity of structures and the presence of numerous functional groups available for chemical modifications represent an enormous advantage for the development of safe, non-toxic, and cost-effective micellar drug delivery systems (DDS) based on natural biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and peptides. Different drug-loading methods are used for the preparation of these micellar systems, but it appeared that dialysis is generally recommended, as it avoids the formation of large micellar aggregates. Moreover, the preparation method has an important influence on micellar size, morphology, and drug loading efficiency. The small size allows the passive accumulation of these micellar systems via the permeability and retention effect. Natural biopolymer-based micellar DDS are high-value biomaterials characterized by good compatibility, biodegradability, long blood circulation time, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and high drug loading, and they are biodegraded to non-toxic products that are easily assimilated by the human body. Even if some recent studies reported better antitumoral effects for the micellar DDS based on polysaccharides than for commercial formulations, their clinical use is not yet generalized. This review is focused on the studies from the last decade concerning the preparation as well as the colloidal and biological characterization of micellar DDS based on natural biopolymers.