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Madhubala D, Patra A, Khan MR, Mukherjee AK. Phytomedicine for neurodegenerative diseases: The road ahead. Phytother Res 2024; 38:2993-3019. [PMID: 38600725 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.8192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) are among the most common causes of death across the globe. NDs are characterized by progressive damage to CNS neurons, leading to defects in specific brain functions such as memory, cognition, and movement. The most common NDs are Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Despite extensive research, no therapeutics or medications against NDs have been proven to be effective. The current treatment of NDs involving symptom-based targeting of the disease pathogenesis has certain limitations, such as drug resistance, adverse side effects, poor blood-brain barrier permeability, and poor bioavailability of drugs. Some studies have shown that plant-derived natural compounds hold tremendous promise for treating and preventing NDs. Therefore, the primary objective of this review article is to critically analyze the properties and potency of some of the most studied phytomedicines, such as quercetin, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), apigenin, and cannabinoids, and highlight their advantages and limitations for developing next-generation alternative treatments against NDs. Further extensive research on pre-clinical and clinical studies for developing plant-based drugs against NDs from bench to bedside is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Madhubala
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India
- Division of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Aparup Patra
- Division of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Mojibur R Khan
- Division of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Ashis K Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India
- Division of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
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2
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Vardar US, Bitter JH, Nikiforidis CV. The mechanism of encapsulating curcumin into oleosomes (Lipid Droplets). Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2024; 236:113819. [PMID: 38428208 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.113819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Organisms have evolved intracellular micron-sized lipid droplets to carry and protect lipids and hydrophobic minor compounds in the hydrophilic environment of cells. These droplets can be utilized as carriers of hydrophobic therapeutics by taking advantage of their biological functions. Here, we focus on the potential of plant-derived lipid droplets, known as oleosomes, as carriers for hydrophobic therapeutics, such as curcumin. By spectroscopy and confocal microscopy, we demonstrate that the oleosome membrane is permeable to hydrophobic curcumin molecules. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching shows rapid curcumin diffusion towards oleosomes, with a diffusion time in the range of seconds. Following this, quenching probes and dilatational rheology reveal that part of the loaded curcumin molecules can accumulate at the oleosome interface, and the rest settle in the inner core. Our findings shed light on the loading mechanism of the plant-derived lipid droplets and underscore the significance of molecular localization for understanding the mechanism. This work not only enhances the understanding of the loading process but also shows potential for oleosomes use as lipid carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umay Sevgi Vardar
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, Wageningen 6708 WG, the Netherlands
| | - Johannes H Bitter
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, Wageningen 6708 WG, the Netherlands
| | - Constantinos V Nikiforidis
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, Wageningen 6708 WG, the Netherlands.
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3
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Sallaberry CA, Voss BJ, Stone WB, Estrada F, Bhatia A, Soto JD, Griffin CW, Vander Zanden CM. Curcumin Reduces Amyloid Beta Oligomer Interactions with Anionic Membranes. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:4026-4038. [PMID: 37906715 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Many neurodegenerative diseases involve amyloidogenic proteins forming surface-bound aggregates on anionic membranes, and the peptide amyloid β (Aβ) in Alzheimer's disease is one prominent example of this. Curcumin is a small polyphenolic molecule that provides an interesting opportunity to understand the fundamental mechanisms of membrane-mediated aggregation because it embeds into membranes to alter their structure while also altering Aβ aggregation in an aqueous environment. The purpose of this work was to understand interactions among curcumin, β-sheet-rich Aβ fibrillar oligomers (FO), and a model anionic membrane. From a combination of liquid surface X-ray scattering experiments and molecular dynamics simulations, we found that curcumin embedded into an anionic 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylglycerol (DMPG) membrane to rest between the lipid headgroups and the tails, causing disorder and membrane thinning. FO accumulation on the membrane was reduced by ∼66% in the presence of curcumin, likely influenced by membrane thinning. Simulation results suggested curcumin clusters near exposed phenylalanine residues on a membrane-embedded FO structure. Altogether, curcumin inhibited FO interactions with a DMPG membrane, likely through a combination of altered membrane structure and interactions with the FO surface. This work elucidates the mechanism of curcumin as a small molecule that inhibits amyloidogenesis through a combination of both membrane and protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad A Sallaberry
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Barbie J Voss
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - William B Stone
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Fabiola Estrada
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Advita Bhatia
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - J Daniel Soto
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Charles W Griffin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Crystal M Vander Zanden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
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4
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Wolnicka-Glubisz A, Wisniewska-Becker A. Dual Action of Curcumin as an Anti- and Pro-Oxidant from a Biophysical Perspective. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1725. [PMID: 37760028 PMCID: PMC10525529 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12091725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Curcumin, a natural polyphenol widely used as a spice, colorant and food additive, has been shown to have therapeutic effects against different disorders, mostly due to its anti-oxidant properties. Curcumin also reduces the efficiency of melanin synthesis and affects cell membranes. However, curcumin can act as a pro-oxidant when blue light is applied, since upon illumination it can generate singlet oxygen. Our review aims to describe this dual role of curcumin from a biophysical perspective, bearing in mind its concentration, bioavailability-enhancing modifications and membrane interactions, as well as environmental conditions such as light. In low concentrations and without irradiation, curcumin shows positive effects and can be recommended as a beneficial food supplement. On the other hand, when used in excess or irradiated, curcumin can be toxic. Therefore, numerous attempts have been undertaken to test curcumin as a potential photosensitizer in photodynamic therapy (PDT). At that point, we underline that curcumin-based PDT is limited to the treatment of superficial tumors or skin and oral infections due to the weak penetration of blue light. Additionally, we conclude that an increase in curcumin bioavailability through the using nanocarriers, and therefore its concentration, as well as its topical use if skin is exposed to light, may be dangerous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wolnicka-Glubisz
- Department of Biophysics and Cancer Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Wisniewska-Becker
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
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5
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Li CZ, Chang HM, Hsu WL, Venkatesan P, Lin MHC, Lai PS. Curcumin-Loaded Oil-Free Self-Assembled Micelles Inhibit the Influenza A Virus Activity and the Solidification of Curcumin-Loaded Micelles for Pharmaceutical Applications. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:2422. [PMID: 36365240 PMCID: PMC9697350 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Curcumin, a well-known natural lipophilic phenolic compound, plays a vital role in inhibiting the influenza infection. Currently, many kinds of formulations for the enhancement of a water dispersion of curcumin have been developed; however, the anti-influenza abilities of formulated curcumin have been much less investigated. In this study, the optimized self-assembled micelles of RH 40/Tween 80 loaded with curcumin (Cur-M) in an oil-free-based system were spherical with a hydrodynamic size at 13.55 nm ± 0.208 and polydispersity at 0.144 characterized by atomic force microscopy and dynamic light scattering, respectively. Additionally, Cur-M significantly increased the bioactivity/stability of curcumin and effectively inhibited the influenza A virus infection and its replication after viral entry, indicating the alteration of the inhibition mechanisms of curcumin against virus infection via RH 40/Tween 80 micelle formulation. Furthermore, a solid formulation (Cur-SM) of Cur-M was successfully developed by a one-pot physical adsorption method using a small amount of adsorbent and ~50% of curcumin/Cur-M that could be burst released from Cur-SM in 1 h, facilitating the fast-releasing applications. Ultimately, all of the results show that Cur-SM acts as a good nano-formulation of curcumin with improved solubility/dispersity in aqueous solutions and demonstrate new anti-influenza mechanisms of curcumin for pharmaceutical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cun-Zhao Li
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Min Chang
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Li Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Parthiban Venkatesan
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Martin Hsiu-Chu Lin
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
- Ph.D. Program in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chia-Yi Branch, Chia-Yi 613, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Shan Lai
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
- Ph.D. Program in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145, Xingda Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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6
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Zheng D, Huang C, Li B, Zhu X, Liu R, Zhao H. Effect of a novel shell material-Starch-protein-fatty acid ternary nanoparticles on loading levels and in vitro release of curcumin. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 192:471-478. [PMID: 34634332 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Preparation of ternary nanoparticles using high amylose complex, stearic acid, and soy protein isolate as shell materials and their encapsulation of curcumin were studied. The effect of curcumin in ternary nanostructures, loading capacity of the nanoparticles, its solubility and sustained release behavior in vitro are discussed. The encapsulation efficiency of the ternary nanoparticles was 87.14 ± 0.70%, and the loading rate was 16.81 μg/g. Qualitative analysis showed that curcumin addition increases the long-range and short-range ordered structure of ternary starch (TS) by changing its crystallinity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that curcumin-TS is formed via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic properties of the protein. An in vitro release test showed that TS particles can control the stable release of curcumin in simulated intestinal fluid. Our study provided a novel approach to high biomass encapsulation and sustained release of polyphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dantong Zheng
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Chongxing Huang
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning, China.
| | - Bo Li
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xuhao Zhu
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Ren Liu
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- School of Light Industry & Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, Nanning, China
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Clotrimazole Fluidizes Phospholipid Membranes and Localizes at the Hydrophobic Part near the Polar Part of the Membrane. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091304. [PMID: 34572517 PMCID: PMC8464689 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clotrimazole (1-[(2-chlorophenyl)-diphenylmethyl]-imidazole) is an azole antifungal drug belonging to the imidazole subclass that is widely used in pharmacology and that can be incorporated in membranes. We studied its interaction with 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) phospholipid vesicles by using differential scanning calorimetry and found that the transition temperature decreases progressively as the concentration of clotrimazole increases. However, the temperature of completion of the transition remained constant despite the increase of clotrimazole concentration, suggesting the formation of fluid immiscibility. 1H-NMR and 1H NOESY MAS-NMR were employed to investigate the location of clotrimazole in 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) phospholipid membranes. In the presence of clotrimazole, all the resonances originating from POPC were shifted upfield, but mainly those corresponding to C2 and C3 of the fatty acyl, chains suggesting that clotrimazole aromatic rings preferentially locate near these carbons. In the same way, 2D-NOESY measurements showed that the highest cross-relaxation rates between protons of clotrimazole and POPC were with those bound to the C2 and C3 carbons of the fatty acyl chains. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that clotrimazole is located near the top of the hydrocarbon-chain phase, with the nitrogen atoms of the imidazole ring of clotrimazole being closest to the polar group of the carbonyl moiety. These results are in close agreement with the NMR and the conclusion is that clotrimazole is located near the water–lipid interface and in the upper part of the hydrophobic bilayer.
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8
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de Deus W, de França BM, Forero JS, Granato AEC, Ulrich H, Dória ACOC, Amaral MM, Slabon A, Rodrigues BVM. Curcuminoid-Tailored Interfacial Free Energy of Hydrophobic Fibers for Enhanced Biological Properties. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:24493-24504. [PMID: 34024099 PMCID: PMC8289194 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c05034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The ability of mimicking the extracellular matrix architecture has gained electrospun scaffolds a prominent space into the tissue engineering field. The high surface-to-volume aspect ratio of nanofibers increases their bioactivity while enhancing the bonding strength with the host tissue. Over the years, numerous polyesters, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), have been consolidated as excellent matrices for biomedical applications. However, this class of polymers usually has a high hydrophobic character, which limits cell attachment and proliferation, and therefore decreases biological interactions. In this way, functionalization of polyester-based materials is often performed in order to modify their interfacial free energy and achieve more hydrophilic surfaces. Herein, we report the preparation, characterization, and in vitro assessment of electrospun PLA fibers with low contents (0.1 wt %) of different curcuminoids featuring π-conjugated systems, and a central β-diketone unit, including curcumin itself. We evaluated the potential of these materials for photochemical and biomedical purposes. For this, we investigated their optical properties, water contact angle, and surface features while assessing their in vitro behavior using SH-SY5Y cells. Our results demonstrate the successful generation of homogeneous and defect-free fluorescent fibers, which are noncytotoxic, exhibit enhanced hydrophilicity, and as such greater cell adhesion and proliferation toward neuroblastoma cells. The unexpected tailoring of the scaffolds' interfacial free energy has been associated with the strong interactions between the PLA hydrophobic sites and the nonpolar groups from curcuminoids, which indicate its role for releasing hydrophilic sites from both parts. This investigation reveals a straightforward approach to produce photoluminescent 3D-scaffolds with enhanced biological properties by using a polymer that is essentially hydrophobic combined with the low contents of photoactive and multifunctional curcuminoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wevernilson
F. de Deus
- Instituto
Científico e Tecnológico, Universidade Brasil, Rua Carolina Fonseca 235, 08230-030, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruna M. de França
- Instituto
de Química, Universidade Federal
do Rio de Janeiro, Centro de Tecnologia, Bloco A, Cidade Universitária, 21941-909, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Josué Sebastian
B. Forero
- Instituto
de Química, Universidade Federal
do Rio de Janeiro, Centro de Tecnologia, Bloco A, Cidade Universitária, 21941-909, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandro E. C. Granato
- Departamento
de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento
de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anelise C. O. C. Dória
- Laboratório
de Biotecnologia e Plasmas Elétricos, IP&D, Universidade do Vale do Paraíba, Avenido Shishima Hifumi 2911, 12244-000, São José
dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcello M. Amaral
- Instituto
Científico e Tecnológico, Universidade Brasil, Rua Carolina Fonseca 235, 08230-030, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Adam Slabon
- Department
of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius väg 16C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bruno V. M. Rodrigues
- Instituto
Científico e Tecnológico, Universidade Brasil, Rua Carolina Fonseca 235, 08230-030, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department
of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius väg 16C, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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Abstract
The recent development of several methods for extracting curcumin from the root of the plant Curcuma longa has led to intensified research on the properties of curcumin and its fields of application. Following the studies and the accreditation of curcumin as a natural compound with antifungal, antiviral, and antibacterial properties, new fields of application have been developed in two main directions—food and medical, respectively. This review paper aims to synthesize the fields of application of curcumin as an additive for the prevention of spoilage, safety, and quality of food. Simultaneously, it aims to present curcumin as an additive in products for the prevention of bacterial infections and health care. In both cases, the types of curcumin formulations in the form of (nano)emulsions, (nano)particles, or (nano)composites are presented, depending on the field and conditions of exploitation or their properties to be used. The diversity of composite materials that can be designed, depending on the purpose of use, leaves open the field of research on the conditioning of curcumin. Various biomaterials active from the antibacterial and antibiofilm point of view can be intuited in which curcumin acts as an additive that potentiates the activities of other compounds or has a synergistic activity with them.
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Diethylstilbestrol Modifies the Structure of Model Membranes and Is Localized Close to the First Carbons of the Fatty Acyl Chains. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11020220. [PMID: 33557377 PMCID: PMC7914449 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) is used to treat metastatic carcinomas and prostate cancer. We studied its interaction with membranes and its localization to understand its mechanism of action and side-effects. We used differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showing that DES fluidized the membrane and has poor solubility in DMPC (1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) in the fluid state. Using small-angle X-ray diffraction (SAXD), it was observed that DES increased the thickness of the water layer between phospholipid membranes, indicating effects on the membrane surface. DSC, X-ray diffraction, and 31P-NMR spectroscopy were used to study the effect of DES on the Lα-to-HII phase transition, and it was observed that negative curvature of the membrane is promoted by DES, and this effect may be significant to understand its action on membrane enzymes. Using the 1H-NOESY-NMR-MAS technique, cross-relaxation rates for different protons of DES with POPC (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) protons were calculated, suggesting that the most likely location of DES in the membrane is with the main axis parallel to the surface and close to the first carbons of the fatty acyl chains of POPC. Molecular dynamics simulations were in close agreements with the experimental results regarding the location of DES in phospholipids bilayers.
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