A computer model for the simulation of fiber–cell interaction in the alveolar region of the respiratory tract

Cell biophysical stimuli in lobopodium formation: a computer based approach

Different cell migration modes have been identified in 3D environments, e.g., modes incorporating lamellopodia or blebs. Recently, a new type of cellular migration has been investigated: lobopodia-based migration, which appears only in three-dimensional matrices under certain conditions. The cell creates a protrusion through which the nucleus slips, dividing the cell into two parts (front and rear) with different hydrostatic pressures. In this work, we elucidate the mechanical conditions that favour this type of migration.One of the hypotheses about this type of migration is that it depends on the mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix. That is, lobopodia-based migration is dependent on whether the extracellular matrix is linearly elastic or non-linearly elastic.To determine whether the mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix are crucial in the choice of cell migration mode and which mechanotransduction mechanism the cell might use, we develop a finite element model. From our simulations, we identify two different possible mechanotransduction mechanisms that could regulate the cell to switch from a lobopodial to a lamellipodial migration mode. The first relies on a differential pressure increase inside the cytoplasm while the cell contracts, and the second relies on a change in the fluid flow direction in non-linearly elastic extracellular matrices but not in linearly elastic matrices. The biphasic nature of the cell has been determined to mediate this mechanism and the different behaviours of cells in linearly elastic and non-linearly elastic matrices.

Transport of ellipsoid fibers in oscillatory shear flows: Implications for aerosol deposition in deep airways

It is widely acknowledged that inhaled fibers, e.g. air pollutants and anthropogenic particulate matter, hold the ability to deposit deep into the lungs reaching the distal pulmonary acinar airways as a result of their aerodynamic properties; these particles tend to align with the flow and thus stay longer airborne relative to their spherical counterpart, due to higher drag forces that resist sedimentation. Together with a high surface-to-volume ratio, such characteristics may render non-spherical particles, and fibers in particular, potentially attractive airborne carriers for drug delivery. Until present, however, our understanding of the dynamics of inhaled aerosols in the distal regions of the lungs has been mostly limited to spherical particles. In an effort to unravel the fate of non-spherical aerosols in the pulmonary depths, we explore through numerical simulations the kinematics of ellipsoid-shaped fibers in a toy model of a straight pipe as a first step towards understanding particle dynamics in more intricate acinar geometries. Transient translational and rotational motions of micron-sized ellipsoid particles are simulated as a function of aspect ratio (AR) for laminar oscillatory shear flows mimicking various inhalation maneuvers under the influence of aerodynamic (i.e. drag and lift) and gravitational forces. We quantify transport and deposition metrics for such fibers, including residence time and penetration depth, compared with spherical particles of equivalent mass. Our findings underscore how deposition depth is largely independent of AR under oscillatory conditions, in contrast with previous works where AR was found to influence deposition depth under steady inspiratory flow. Overall, our efforts underline the importance of modeling oscillatory breathing when predicting fiber deposition in the distal lungs, as they are inhaled and exhaled during a full inspiratory cycle. Such physical insight helps further explore the potential of fiber particles as attractive carriers for deep airway targeting.

Inhalation of nanoplatelets - Theoretical deposition simulations

Primary objective of the contribution was the theoretical prediction of nanoplatelet deposition in the human respiratory tract. Modeling was founded on the hypothetical inhalation of graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) measuring 0.01 and 0.1μm in thickness and adopting a projected area diameter of 1-30μm. Particle uptake was assumed to take place with inhalation flow rates of 250, 500, 750, and 1000cm³s^-1, respectively. For an appropriate description of pulmonary particle behavior, transport of GNP in a stochastic lung structure and deposition formulae based on analytical and numerical studies were presupposed. The results obtained from the theoretical approach clearly demonstrate that GNP with a thickness of 0.01μm deposit in the respiratory tract by 20-50%, whereas GNP with a thickness of 0.1μm exhibit a deposition of 20-90%. Larger platelets deposit with higher probability than small ones. Increase of inhalation flow rate is accompanied by decreased deposition in the case of thin GNP, whilst thicker GNP are preferably accumulated in the extrathoracic region. Generation-specific deposition ranges from 0.05 to 7% (0.01μm) and from 0.05 to 9%, with maximum values being obtained in airway generation 20. In proximal airway generations (0-10), deposition is increased with inhalation flow rate, whereas in intermediate to distal generations a reverse effect may be observed. Health consequences of GNP deposition in different lung compartments are subjected to an intense debate.

Computer-aided generation and lung deposition modeling of nano-scale particle aggregates

The study sets its main focus on the introduction of a random-walk-based model for the generation of variably shaped particle aggregates consisting of a predefined number of spherical components. With the help of a well-defined algorithm, the user is enabled to select between isodimensional, chain-like and platelet-like aggregates, for which related aerodynamic parameters (dynamic shape factors, volume-equivalent diameters, aerodynamic diameters) are determined automatically. The theoretical approach for random aggregate construction is directly connected with the previously developed stochastic particle transport and deposition model. Thereby, individually shaped aggregates may be provided for each random-walk scenario taking place in the almost realistic lung structure. Preliminary application of the aggregate generation model was carried out by assuming single components with a constant diameter of 1 nm and unit-density (1 g cm^-3) and variably shaped aggregates consisting of 10, 100 and 1000 components. Inhalation of the aggregate-loaded aerosol into lungs of average size (FRC = 3300 mL) was supposed to take place under sitting, light-exercise and heavy-exercise conditions. Results obtained from deposition modeling clearly show that, independent of aggregate geometry, total deposition declines with increasing number of components included in the particulate construct, but experiences a continuous enhancement with rising inhalation flow rate. Among the predefined geometric categories, platelet-like aggregates are distinguished by lowest deposition and isodimensional clusters by highest. While isodimensional aggregates preferentially deposit in the extrathoracic and bronchial airways, chain-like and platelet-like aggregates exhibit a significantly increased tendency to hit the alveolar walls.

Theoretical diagnosis of emphysema by aerosol bolus inhalation

BACKGROUND

The present contribution deals with the theoretical description of aerosol bolus dispersion in lungs being affected by different manifestations of emphysema. The work constructs the hypothesis that each manifestation of emphysema exhibits specific properties with regard to the dispersion of inhaled and exhaled aerosol boluses as well as the deposition of particles from the aerosol pulse.

METHODS

For an appropriate simulation of single emphysematous manifestations, a previously developed model assuming (I) a random variation of alveolar diameters, (II) an exact localization of diseased structures, and (III) a realistic balance between alveolar air volume and number of air sacs was applied. Dispersion of inhaled and exhaled aerosol boluses was simulated by using the mathematical concept of effective diffusivities. Computations were conducted for an average adult lung (FRC =3,300 mL), symmetric breath-cycles with a length 8 s, and inhalation flow rates of 250 mL/s. Particles used for the model predictions had a uniform diameter of 0.84 µm and a density of 1 g/cm³.

RESULTS

According to the theoretical data obtained from the model highest aerosol bolus dispersion may be observed in lungs affected by panacinar and bullous emphysema, whereas centriacinar and paraseptal emphysema cause a significant reduction of the phenomenon. Also other statistical parameters exhibit partly remarkable differences among the studied manifestations. Particle deposition in lungs affected by bullous emphysema falls below that of lungs impaired by the other types of emphysema by 2%-50%.

CONCLUSIONS

From the hypothetical results presented in this study it may be concluded that aerosol bolus inhalation bears a certain potential for the diagnosis of emphysematous structures and, if applied with sufficient accuracy, also for the distinction of single manifestations of emphysema. For a successful use of the technique, however, all statistical bolus parameters and particle deposition have to be subjected to a detailed evaluation.

Bioaerosols in the lungs of subjects with different ages-Part 2: clearance modeling

BACKGROUND

The present contribution deals with theoretical aspects regarding biogenic particle clearance from various lung structures of probands with different ages (1, 5, 15, 20 y). With reference to part 1 of the study, particles varying in size and shape are subject to a detailed analysis. The main goal of the investigation consists in an increase of our knowledge concerning the clearance behaviour of bioparticles and its dependence upon various physiological and anatomical factors.

METHODS

Theoretical clearance of biogenic particles was subdivided into four main phases, namely fast bronchial clearance, slow bronchial clearance, fast alveolar clearance, and slow alveolar clearance. All of these phases were simulated by using a well validated stochastic modeling approach, where the main focus is set on the randomly varied particle mass transfer between main compartments of the human respiratory tract. Whilst effects of particle geometry on clearance were approximated by application of the projective-diameter concept, age dependence of the particle removal process was expressed by the experimentally proven relationship between bronchial mucus velocities and morphometry of the airway tree.

RESULTS

According to the results of the theoretical simulations efficiency of fast bronchial clearance, expressed by the 24-h-retention value, exhibits a negative correlation with proband's age, whereas the other clearance phases are characterized by a rather conservative behaviour among the different age categories. Highest clearance rates may be observed for very fine (<0.01 µm) and very coarse particles (>5 µm) preferentially deposited in the upper bronchial airways, whilst large particles accumulated in the alveoli may be stored there for several months to years.

CONCLUSIONS

The study comes to the conclusion that infants and children dispose of an enhanced bronchial clearance efficiency with respect to adolescents and adults, which results in a faster removal of particulate substances accumulated in the upper bronchial regions. Particles escaping from the natural filtering process in the upper airways and undergoing alveolar deposition are subject to identical clearance scenarios among the age groups and may represent remarkable health hazards.

Online Estimation Method for Respiratory Parameters Based on a Pneumatic Model

Mechanical ventilation is an important method to help people breathe. Respiratory parameters of ventilated patients are usually tracked for pulmonary diagnostics and respiratory treatment assessment. In this paper, to improve the estimation accuracy of respiratory parameters, a pneumatic model for mechanical ventilation was proposed. Furthermore, based on the mathematical model, a recursive least-squares algorithm was adopted to estimate the respiratory parameters. Finally, through experimental and numerical study, it was demonstrated that the proposed estimation method was effective and the method can be used in pulmonary diagnostics and treatment.

Bioaerosols in the lungs of subjects with different ages-part 1: deposition modeling

BACKGROUND

In this contribution the inhalation and deposition of bioaerosols including particles with various shapes and sizes were investigated for probands with different ages (1, 5, 15 and 20 y). The study should help to increase our knowledge with regard to the behavior of variably shaped and sized particles in lungs being subject to different developmental stages.

METHODS

Simulation of particle transport and deposition in single structures of the respiratory tract was conducted by using a stochastic model of the tracheobronchial tree and well-validated analytical and empirical deposition formulae. Possible effects of particle geometry on deposition were taken into consideration by application of the aerodynamic diameter concept. Age-dependent lung morphometry and breathing parameters were computed by using appropriate scaling factors.

RESULTS

Theoretical simulations came to the result that bioparticle deposition in infants and children clearly differs from that in adolescents and adults insofar as the amount of deposited mass exhibits a positive correlation with age. Nose breathing results in higher extrathoracic deposition rates than mouth breathing and, as a consequence of that, lower particle amounts are enabled to enter the lung structures after passing the nasal airways. Under sitting breathing conditions highest alveolar deposition rates were calculated for particles adopting aerodynamic diameters of 10 nm and 4 µm, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The study comes to the conclusion that bioparticles have a lower chance to reach the alveoli in infants' and children's lungs, but show a higher alveolar deposition probability in the lungs of adolescents and adults. Despite of this circumstance also young subjects may increasingly suffer from biogenic particle burden, when they are subject to a long-term exposure to certain bioaerosols.

Expert consensus on an in vitro approach to assess pulmonary fibrogenic potential of aerosolized nanomaterials

The increasing use of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in consumer products and their potential to induce adverse lung effects following inhalation has lead to much interest in better understanding the hazard associated with these nanomaterials (NMs). While the current regulatory requirement for substances of concern, such as MWCNTs, in many jurisdictions is a 90-day rodent inhalation test, the monetary, ethical, and scientific concerns associated with this test led an international expert group to convene in Washington, DC, USA, to discuss alternative approaches to evaluate the inhalation toxicity of MWCNTs. Pulmonary fibrosis was identified as a key adverse outcome linked to MWCNT exposure, and recommendations were made on the design of an in vitro assay that is predictive of the fibrotic potential of MWCNTs. While fibrosis takes weeks or months to develop in vivo, an in vitro test system may more rapidly predict fibrogenic potential by monitoring pro-fibrotic mediators (e.g., cytokines and growth factors). Therefore, the workshop discussions focused on the necessary specifications related to the development and evaluation of such an in vitro system. Recommendations were made for designing a system using lung-relevant cells co-cultured at the air–liquid interface to assess the pro-fibrogenic potential of aerosolized MWCNTs, while considering human-relevant dosimetry and NM life cycle transformations. The workshop discussions provided the fundamental design components of an air–liquid interface in vitro test system that will be subsequently expanded to the development of an alternative testing strategy to predict pulmonary toxicity and to generate data that will enable effective risk assessment of NMs.

A computer model for the simulation of nanoparticle deposition in the alveolar structures of the human lungs

BACKGROUND

According to epidemiological and experimental studies, inhalation of nanoparticles is commonly believed as a main trigger for several pulmonary dysfunctions and lung diseases. Concerning the transport and deposition of such nano-scale particles in the different structures of the human lungs, some essential questions are still in need of a clarification. Therefore, main objective of the study was the simulation of nanoparticle deposition in the alveolar region of the human respiratory tract (HRT).

METHODS

Respective factors describing the aerodynamic behavior of spherical and non-spherical particles in the inhaled air stream (i.e., Cunningham slip correction factors, dynamic shape factors, equivalent-volume diameters, aerodynamic diameters) were computed. Alveolar deposition of diverse nanomaterials according to several known mechanisms, among which Brownian diffusion and sedimentation play a superior role, was approximated by the use of empirical and analytical formulae. Deposition calculations were conducted with a currently developed program, termed NANODEP, which allows the variation of numerous input parameters with regard to particle geometry, lung morphometry, and aerosol inhalation.

RESULTS

Generally, alveolar deposition of nanoparticles concerned for this study varies between 0.1% and 12.4% during sitting breathing and between 2.0% and 20.1% during heavy-exercise breathing. Prolate particles (e.g., nanotubes) exhibit a significant increase in deposition, when their aspect ratio is enhanced. In contrast, deposition of oblate particles (e.g., nanoplatelets) is remarkably declined with any reduction of the aspect ratio.

CONCLUSIONS

The study clearly demonstrates that alveolar deposition of nanoparticles represents a topic certainly being of superior interest for physicists and respiratory physicians in future.

Advances in Inhalation Dosimetry Models and Methods for Occupational Risk Assessment and Exposure Limit Derivation

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview and practical guide to occupational health professionals concerning the derivation and use of dose estimates in risk assessment for development of occupational exposure limits (OELs) for inhaled substances. Dosimetry is the study and practice of measuring or estimating the internal dose of a substance in individuals or a population. Dosimetry thus provides an essential link to understanding the relationship between an external exposure and a biological response. Use of dosimetry principles and tools can improve the accuracy of risk assessment, and reduce the uncertainty, by providing reliable estimates of the internal dose at the target tissue. This is accomplished through specific measurement data or predictive models, when available, or the use of basic dosimetry principles for broad classes of materials. Accurate dose estimation is essential not only for dose-response assessment, but also for interspecies extrapolation and for risk characterization at given exposures. Inhalation dosimetry is the focus of this paper since it is a major route of exposure in the workplace. Practical examples of dose estimation and OEL derivation are provided for inhaled gases and particulates.

Pressure dynamic characteristics of pressure controlled ventilation system of a lung simulator

Mechanical ventilation is an important life support treatment of critically ill patients, and air pressure dynamics of human lung affect ventilation treatment effects. In this paper, in order to obtain the influences of seven key parameters of mechanical ventilation system on the pressure dynamics of human lung, firstly, mechanical ventilation system was considered as a pure pneumatic system, and then its mathematical model was set up. Furthermore, to verify the mathematical model, a prototype mechanical ventilation system of a lung simulator was proposed for experimental study. Last, simulation and experimental studies on the air flow dynamic of the mechanical ventilation system were done, and then the pressure dynamic characteristics of the mechanical system were obtained. The study can be referred to in the pulmonary diagnostics, treatment, and design of various medical devices or diagnostic systems.

Clearance of carbon nanotubes in the human respiratory tract-a theoretical approach

INTRODUCTION

Theoretical knowledge of carbon nanotube clearance in the human respiratory tract represents an essential contribution to the risk assessment of artificial airborne nanomaterials. Thus, single phases of nanotube clearance were simulated with the help of a theoretical model.

METHODS

In this study, clearance of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) was simulated by using a validated mathematical approach that includes all clearance mechanisms known hitherto. Fast mucociliary clearance is approximated by a steady-state steady-flow mucus model, whereas slow clearance mechanisms are modeled by definition of related clearance half-times.

RESULTS

Clearance may be subdivided into three phases, including fast bronchial clearance (mucociliary escalator), slow bronchial clearance (particle uptake by airway macrophages, transcytosis), and alveolar clearance (phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages, endocytosis by alveolar epithelium). According to the clearance model used in this study, mucociliary clearance is completed within the first 24 h after exposure, whereas slow bronchial clearance is characterized by a half-time of 5 d. Alveolar clearance is marked by half-times >100 d. As a result of their different deposition patterns, SWCNT and MWCNT show some discrepancies with regard to their clearance insofar as long SWCNT reside significantly longer in the lungs than MWCNT. This circumstance is among other expressed by higher 24-h, 10-d, and 100-d retentions computed for SWCNT compared to MWCNT.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Due to their partly high residence times in distal lung regions, carbon nanotubes may bear the potential to act as triggers of inflammatory reactions or fibrotic modifications of the lung structure. Further they may also induce malignant transformations of lung cells, resulting in the development of lung tumours.