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Schoofs A, Miroschnikow A, Schlegel P, Zinke I, Schneider-Mizell CM, Cardona A, Pankratz MJ. Serotonergic modulation of swallowing in a complete fly vagus nerve connectome. Curr Biol 2024:S0960-9822(24)01137-0. [PMID: 39270641 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024]
Abstract
How the body interacts with the brain to perform vital life functions, such as feeding, is a fundamental issue in physiology and neuroscience. Here, we use a whole-animal scanning transmission electron microscopy volume of Drosophila to map the neuronal circuits that connect the entire enteric nervous system to the brain via the insect vagus nerve at synaptic resolution. We identify a gut-brain feedback loop in which Piezo-expressing mechanosensory neurons in the esophagus convey food passage information to a cluster of six serotonergic neurons in the brain. Together with information on food value, these central serotonergic neurons enhance the activity of serotonin receptor 7-expressing motor neurons that drive swallowing. This elemental circuit architecture includes an axo-axonic synaptic connection from the glutamatergic motor neurons innervating the esophageal muscles onto the mechanosensory neurons that signal to the serotonergic neurons. Our analysis elucidates a neuromodulatory sensory-motor system in which ongoing motor activity is strengthened through serotonin upon completion of a biologically meaningful action, and it may represent an ancient form of motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Schoofs
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Straße, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | - Anton Miroschnikow
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Straße, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | - Philipp Schlegel
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 TN1, UK; MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Trumpington, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Ingo Zinke
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Straße, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | | | - Albert Cardona
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Trumpington, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK; Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA; Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EL, UK
| | - Michael J Pankratz
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Straße, Bonn 53115, Germany.
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2
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Delescluse J, Simonnet MM, Ziegler AB, Piffaretti K, Alves G, Grosjean Y, Manière G. A LAT1-Like Amino Acid Transporter Regulates Neuronal Activity in the Drosophila Mushroom Bodies. Cells 2024; 13:1340. [PMID: 39195231 DOI: 10.3390/cells13161340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The proper functioning of neural circuits that integrate sensory signals is essential for individual adaptation to an ever-changing environment. Many molecules can modulate neuronal activity, including neurotransmitters, receptors, and even amino acids. Here, we ask whether amino acid transporters expressed by neurons can influence neuronal activity. We found that minidiscs (mnd), which encodes a light chain of a heterodimeric amino acid transporter, is expressed in different cell types of the adult Drosophila brain: in mushroom body neurons (MBs) and in glial cells. Using live calcium imaging, we found that MND expressed in α/β MB neurons is essential for sensitivity to the L-amino acids: Leu, Ile, Asp, Glu, Lys, Thr, and Arg. We found that the Target Of Rapamycin (TOR) pathway but not the Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH) pathway is involved in the Leucine-dependent response of α/β MB neurons. This study strongly supports the key role of MND in regulating MB activity in response to amino acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Delescluse
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Mégane M Simonnet
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Anna B Ziegler
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
- Institute for Neuro- and Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Kévin Piffaretti
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Georges Alves
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Yael Grosjean
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Gérard Manière
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, CNRS, INRAe, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France
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3
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Zaman K, Mun HC, Solon-Biet SM, Senior AM, Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ, Conigrave AD. Mice Regulate Dietary Amino Acid Balance and Energy Intake by Selecting between Complementary Protein Sources. J Nutr 2024; 154:1766-1780. [PMID: 38583524 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A balanced intake of protein and constituent amino acids (AAs) requires adjustments to total food intake (protein leverage [PL]) and food selection to balance deficits and excesses (complementary feeding). We provided mice with choices of casein and whey, 2 protein sources that are complementary in AA balance, across a range of protein concentrations (P%) of digestible energy (DE). OBJECTIVES We aimed to determine if: 1) PL operates similarly for casein and whey; 2) one protein source is preferred at control P%; 3) the preference changes as P% falls; and 4) AA intakes under control and low P% levels identify AAs that drive changes in protein selection. METHODS Food intake and plasma fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21) concentrations were measured in mice at various P% (P7.5%-P33%). For direct comparisons, defined diets were used in which the protein source was either casein or whey. In food choice studies, mice had access to foods in which both casein and whey were provided at the same P% level at the same time. RESULTS PL operated at different P% thresholds in casein (13%)- and whey (10%)-based diets, and the magnitude of PL was greater for casein. Although mice preferred casein under control conditions (P23%), a pronounced preference shift to whey occurred as P% fell to P13% and P10%. At low P%, increases in food intake were accompanied by increases in plasma FGF21, a protein hunger signal. Among AAs deficient in casein and enriched in whey, the intake of Cys was the most invariant as P% changed between P23% and P10%, appearing to drive the switch in protein preference. CONCLUSIONS Mice selected between complementary protein sources, casein and whey, achieving stable total energy intake and regulated intake of AAs as P% varied. Supplementation of low P% casein diets with one whey-enriched AA, Cys, suppressed plasma FGF21 and total food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamrul Zaman
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Hee-Chang Mun
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Samantha M Solon-Biet
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alistair M Senior
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Stephen J Simpson
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Arthur D Conigrave
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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4
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Freire T, Clark X, Pulpitel T, Bell-Anderson K, Ribeiro R, Raubenheimer D, Crean AJ, Simpson SJ, Solon-Biet SM. Maternal macronutrient intake effects on offspring macronutrient targets and metabolism. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2024; 32:743-755. [PMID: 38328970 DOI: 10.1002/oby.23995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Exposure in utero to maternal diet can program offspring health and susceptibility to disease. Using C57BL6/JArc mice, we investigated how maternal dietary protein to carbohydrate balance influences male and female offspring appetite and metabolic health. METHODS Dams were placed on either a low-protein (LP) or high-protein (HP) diet. Male and female offspring were placed on a food choice experiment post weaning and were then constrained to either a standard diet or Western diet. Food intake, body weight, and composition were measured, and various metabolic tests were performed at different timepoints. RESULTS Offspring from mothers fed HP diets selected a higher protein intake and had increased body weight in early life relative to offspring from LP diet-fed dams. As predicted by protein leverage theory, higher protein intake targets led to increased food intake when offspring were placed on no-choice diets, resulting in greater body weight and fat mass. The combination of an HP maternal diet and a Western diet further exacerbated this obesity phenotype and led to long-term consequences for body composition and metabolism. CONCLUSIONS This work could help explain the association between elevated protein intake in humans during early life and increased risk of obesity in childhood and later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese Freire
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ximonie Clark
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tamara Pulpitel
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kim Bell-Anderson
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rosilene Ribeiro
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Angela J Crean
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephen J Simpson
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Samantha M Solon-Biet
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
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5
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Solon-Biet SM, Clark X, Bell-Anderson K, Rusu PM, Perks R, Freire T, Pulpitel T, Senior AM, Hoy AJ, Aung O, Le Couteur DG, Raubenheimer D, Rose AJ, Conigrave AD, Simpson SJ. Toward reconciling the roles of FGF21 in protein appetite, sweet preference, and energy expenditure. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113536. [PMID: 38060447 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), an endocrine signal robustly increased by protein restriction independently of an animal's energy status, exerts profound effects on feeding behavior and metabolism. Here, we demonstrate that considering the nutritional contexts within which FGF21 is elevated can help reconcile current controversies over its roles in mediating macronutrient preference, food intake, and energy expenditure. We show that FGF21 is primarily a driver of increased protein intake in mice and that the effect of FGF21 on sweet preference depends on the carbohydrate balance of the animal. Under no-choice feeding, FGF21 infusion either increased or decreased energy expenditure depending on whether the animal was fed a high- or low-energy diet, respectively. We show that while the role of FGF21 in mediating feeding behavior is complex, its role in promoting protein appetite is robust and that the effects on sweet preference and energy expenditure are macronutrient-state-dependent effects of FGF21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M Solon-Biet
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Medicine, The University of Notre Dame, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia.
| | - Ximonie Clark
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Kim Bell-Anderson
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Patricia M Rusu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Metabolism, Diabetes and Obesity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Ruth Perks
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Therese Freire
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Sydney Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Tamara Pulpitel
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Alistair M Senior
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hoy
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Okka Aung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Metabolism, Diabetes and Obesity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - David G Le Couteur
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Sydney Medical School, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Ageing and Alzheimer's Institute and Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Hospital, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Adam J Rose
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Metabolism, Diabetes and Obesity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Arthur D Conigrave
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Stephen J Simpson
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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6
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Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ. Protein appetite as an integrator in the obesity system: the protein leverage hypothesis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220212. [PMID: 37661737 PMCID: PMC10475875 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the large volume and extensive range of obesity research, there is substantial disagreement on the causes and effective preventative strategies. We suggest the field will benefit from greater emphasis on integrative approaches that examine how various potential contributors interact, rather than regarding them as competing explanations. We demonstrate the application of nutritional geometry, a multi-nutrient integrative framework developed in the ecological sciences, to obesity research. Such studies have shown that humans, like many other species, regulate protein intake more strongly than other dietary components, and consequently if dietary protein is diluted there is a compensatory increase in food intake-a process called protein leverage. The protein leverage hypothesis (PLH) proposes that the dilution of protein in modern food supplies by fat and carbohydrate-rich highly processed foods has resulted in increased energy intake through protein leverage. We present evidence for the PLH from a variety of sources (mechanistic, experimental and observational), and show that this mechanism is compatible with many other findings and theories in obesity research. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Causes of obesity: theories, conjectures and evidence (Part II)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Simpson
- Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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7
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Prilutski Y, Livneh Y. Physiological Needs: Sensations and Predictions in the Insular Cortex. Physiology (Bethesda) 2023; 38:0. [PMID: 36040864 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00019.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Physiological needs create powerful motivations (e.g., thirst and hunger). Studies in humans and animal models have implicated the insular cortex in the neural regulation of physiological needs and need-driven behavior. We review prominent mechanistic models of how the insular cortex might achieve this regulation and present a conceptual and analytical framework for testing these models in healthy and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Prilutski
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yoav Livneh
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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8
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Grech A, Sui Z, Rangan A, Simpson SJ, Coogan SCP, Raubenheimer D. Macronutrient (im)balance drives energy intake in an obesogenic food environment: An ecological analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2022; 30:2156-2166. [PMID: 36321270 PMCID: PMC9828743 DOI: 10.1002/oby.23578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The protein leverage hypothesis (PLH) postulates that strong regulation of protein intake drives energy overconsumption and obesity when human diets are diluted by fat and carbohydrates. The two predictions of the PLH are that humans (i) regulate intake to maintain protein within a narrow range and that (ii) energy intake is an inverse function of percentage energy from protein because absolute protein intake is maintained within narrow limits. METHODS Multidimensional nutritional geometry was used to test the predictions of the PLH using dietary data from the Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. RESULTS Both predictions of the PLH were confirmed in a population setting: the mean protein intake was 18.4%, and energy intake decreased with increasing energy from protein (L = -0.18, p < 0.0001). It was demonstrated that highly processed discretionary foods are a significant diluent of protein and associated with increased energy but not increased protein intake. CONCLUSIONS These results support an integrated ecological and mechanistic explanation for obesity, in which low-protein highly processed foods lead to higher energy intake because of the biological response to macronutrient imbalance driven by a dominant appetite for protein. This study supports a central role for protein in the obesity epidemic, with significant implications for global health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Grech
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Zhixian Sui
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Anna Rangan
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Stephen J. Simpson
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Sean C. P. Coogan
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins CentreUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- School of Life and Environmental ScienceUniversity of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
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9
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Senior AM, Raubenheimer D, Simpson SJ. Testing the protein-leverage hypothesis using population surveillance data. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220756. [PMID: 36177194 PMCID: PMC9515627 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
It is hypothesized that humans exhibit 'protein leverage' (PL), whereby regulation of absolute protein intake results in the over-consumption of non-protein food on low percentage protein diets. Testing for PL using dietary surveillance data involves seeking evidence for a negative association between total energy intake and percentage energy from protein. However, it is unclear whether such an association might emerge without PL due to the structure of intake data (protein and non-protein intakes have different means and variances and covary). We derive a set of models that describe the association between the expected estimate of PL and the distributions of protein and non-protein intake. Models were validated via simulation. Patterns consistent with PL will not emerge simply because protein intake has a lower mean and/or variance than non-protein. Rather, evidence of PL is observed where protein has a lower index of dispersion (variance/mean) than non-protein intake. Reciprocally, the stronger PL is the lower the index of dispersion for protein intake becomes. Disentangling causality is ultimately beyond the power of observational data alone. However, we show that one can correct for confounders (e.g. age) in generating signals of PL, and describe independent measures that can anchor inferences around the role of PL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair M. Senior
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - David Raubenheimer
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Simpson
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia
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10
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The neuronal logic of how internal states control food choice. Nature 2022; 607:747-755. [DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04909-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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11
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Raubenheimer D, Senior AM, Mirth C, Cui Z, Hou R, Le Couteur DG, Solon-Biet SM, Léopold P, Simpson SJ. An integrative approach to dietary balance across the life course. iScience 2022; 25:104315. [PMID: 35602946 PMCID: PMC9117877 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals require specific blends of nutrients that vary across the life course and with circumstances, e.g., health and activity levels. Underpinning and complicating these requirements is that individual traits may be optimized on different dietary compositions leading to nutrition-mediated trade-offs among outcomes. Additionally, the food environment may constrain which nutrient mixtures are achievable. Natural selection has equipped animals for solving such multi-dimensional, dynamic challenges of nutrition, but little is understood about the details and their theoretical and practical implications. We present an integrative framework, nutritional geometry, which models complex nutritional interactions in the context of multiple nutrients and across levels of biological organization (e.g., cellular, individual, and population) and levels of analysis (e.g., mechanistic, developmental, ecological, and evolutionary). The framework is generalizable across different situations and taxa. We illustrate this using examples spanning insects to primates and settings (laboratory, and the wild), and demonstrate its relevance for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Raubenheimer
- The University of Sydney, Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Sydney, Australia
- Zhengzhou University, Centre for Nutritional Ecology and Centre for Sport Nutrition and Health, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Alistair M. Senior
- The University of Sydney, Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Sydney, Australia
- The University of Sydney, School of Mathematics and Statistics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Christen Mirth
- Monash University, School of Biological Science, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Zhenwei Cui
- Zhengzhou University, Centre for Nutritional Ecology and Centre for Sport Nutrition and Health, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Rong Hou
- Northwest University, Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, College of Life Sciences, Xi’an, China
| | - David G. Le Couteur
- The University of Sydney, Charles Perkins Centre and Faculty of Medicine and Health, Concord Clinical School, ANZAC Research Institute, Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Sydney, Australia
| | - Samantha M. Solon-Biet
- The University of Sydney, Charles Perkins Centre and School of Medical Sciences, Sydney, Australia
| | - Pierre Léopold
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR3215, INSERM U934, UPMC Paris-Sorbonne, Paris, France
| | - Stephen J. Simpson
- The University of Sydney, Charles Perkins Centre and School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Sydney, Australia
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12
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Brain circuits for promoting homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetites. Exp Mol Med 2022; 54:349-357. [PMID: 35474340 PMCID: PMC9076862 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-022-00758-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
As the principal means of acquiring nutrients, feeding behavior is indispensable to the survival and well-being of animals. In response to energy or nutrient deficits, animals seek and consume food to maintain energy homeostasis. On the other hand, even when animals are calorically replete, non-homeostatic factors, such as the sight, smell, and taste of palatable food, or environmental cues that predict food, can stimulate feeding behavior. These homeostatic and non-homeostatic factors have traditionally been investigated separately, but a growing body of literature highlights that these factors work synergistically to promote feeding behavior. Furthermore, recent breakthroughs in cell type-specific and circuit-specific labeling, recording, and manipulation techniques have markedly accelerated the discovery of well-defined neural populations underlying homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetite control, as well as overlapping circuits that contribute to both types of appetite. This review aims to provide an update on our understanding of the neural circuit mechanisms for promoting homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetites, focusing on the function of recently identified, genetically defined cell types. Research on the neural circuit mechanisms underlying feeding behaviors is critical to identifying therapeutic targets for food-related disorders like obesity and anorexia. Sung-Yon Kim and colleagues at Seoul National University, South Korea, reviewed the current understanding of neural circuits promoting feeding behavior, which is regulated by homeostatic and non-homeostatic appetites. In response to deficits in energy (caloric) or nutrients, specific populations of neurons sensitive to hormones leptin and ghrelin generate homeostatic appetite and promote feeding. In addition, diverse neural populations stimulate non-homeostatic appetite in the absence of immediate internal needs and are thought to drive overconsumption in the modern obesogenic environment. These appetites extensively interact through overlapping neural circuits to jointly promote feeding behaviors.
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13
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Zjacic N, Scholz M. The role of food odor in invertebrate foraging. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2022; 21:e12793. [PMID: 34978135 PMCID: PMC9744530 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Foraging for food is an integral part of animal survival. In small insects and invertebrates, multisensory information and optimized locomotion strategies are used to effectively forage in patchy and complex environments. Here, the importance of olfactory cues for effective invertebrate foraging is discussed in detail. We review how odors are used by foragers to move toward a likely food source and the recent models that describe this sensory-driven behavior. We argue that smell serves a second function by priming an organism for the efficient exploitation of food. By appraising food odors, invertebrates can establish preferences and better adapt to their ecological niches, thereby promoting survival. The smell of food pre-prepares the gastrointestinal system and primes feeding motor programs for more effective ingestion as well. Optimizing resource utilization affects longevity and reproduction as a result, leading to drastic changes in survival. We propose that models of foraging behavior should include odor priming, and illustrate this with a simple toy model based on the marginal value theorem. Lastly, we discuss the novel techniques and assays in invertebrate research that could investigate the interactions between odor sensing and food intake. Overall, the sense of smell is indispensable for efficient foraging and influences not only locomotion, but also organismal physiology, which should be reflected in behavioral modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolina Zjacic
- Max Planck Research Group Neural Information FlowCenter of Advanced European Studies and Research (Caesar)BonnGermany
| | - Monika Scholz
- Max Planck Research Group Neural Information FlowCenter of Advanced European Studies and Research (Caesar)BonnGermany
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14
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OUP accepted manuscript. Nutr Rev 2022; 80:2002-2016. [DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuac019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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15
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Barajas-Azpeleta R, Tastekin I, Ribeiro C. Neuroscience: How the brain prioritizes behaviors. Curr Biol 2021; 31:R1125-R1127. [PMID: 34637713 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
To optimize our choices, we need to prioritize among different goals. A recent study used a new Drosophila behavioral paradigm, bringing together conflicting behavioral choices in the context of different internal states and sensory cues, to provide foundational insights into the circuit mechanisms underlying how the brain prioritizes behavioral decisions.
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16
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Guo D, Zhang YJ, Zhang S, Li J, Guo C, Pan YF, Zhang N, Liu CX, Jia YL, Li CY, Ma JY, Nässel DR, Gao CF, Wu SF. Cholecystokinin-like peptide mediates satiety by inhibiting sugar attraction. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009724. [PMID: 34398892 PMCID: PMC8366971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Feeding is essential for animal survival and reproduction and is regulated by both internal states and external stimuli. However, little is known about how internal states influence the perception of external sensory cues that regulate feeding behavior. Here, we investigated the neuronal and molecular mechanisms behind nutritional state-mediated regulation of gustatory perception in control of feeding behavior in the brown planthopper and Drosophila. We found that feeding increases the expression of the cholecystokinin-like peptide, sulfakinin (SK), and the activity of a set of SK-expressing neurons. Starvation elevates the transcription of the sugar receptor Gr64f and SK negatively regulates the expression of Gr64f in both insects. Interestingly, we found that one of the two known SK receptors, CCKLR-17D3, is expressed by some of Gr64f-expressing neurons in the proboscis and proleg tarsi. Thus, we have identified SK as a neuropeptide signal in a neuronal circuitry that responds to food intake, and regulates feeding behavior by diminishing gustatory receptor gene expression and activity of sweet sensing GRNs. Our findings demonstrate one nutritional state-dependent pathway that modulates sweet perception and thereby feeding behavior, but our experiments cannot exclude further parallel pathways. Importantly, we show that the underlying mechanisms are conserved in the two distantly related insect species. Food intake is critical for animal survival and reproduction and is regulated both by internal states that signal appetite or satiety, and by external sensory stimuli. It is well known that the internal nutritional state influences the strength of the chemosensory perception of food signals. Thus, both gustatory and olfactory signals of preferred food are strengthened in hungry animals. However, the molecular mechanisms behind satiety-mediated modulation of taste are still not known. We show here that cholecystokinin-like (SK) peptide in brown planthopper and Drosophila signals satiety and inhibits sugar attraction by lowering the activity of sweet-sensing gustatory neurons and transcription of a sugar receptor gene, Gr64f. We show that SK peptide signaling reflects the nutritional state and inhibits feeding behavior. Re-feeding after starvation increases SK peptide expression and spontaneous activity of SK producing neurons. Interestingly, we found that SK peptide negatively regulates the expression of the sweet gustatory receptor and that activation of SK producing neurons inhibits the activity of sweet-sensing gustatory neurons (GRNs). Furthermore, we found that one of the two known SK peptide receptors is expressed in some sweet-sensing GRNs in the proboscis and proleg tarsi. In summary, our findings provide a mechanism that is conserved in distantly related insects and which explains how feeding state modulates sweet perception to regulate feeding behavior. Thus, we have identified a neuropeptide signal and its neuronal circuitry that respond to satiety, and that regulate feeding behavior by inhibiting gustatory receptor gene expression and activity of sweet sensing GRNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Guo
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yi-Jie Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Su Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jian Li
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chao Guo
- The Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yu-Feng Pan
- The Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chen-Xi Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Long Jia
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chen-Yu Li
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jun-Yu Ma
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dick R. Nässel
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cong-Fen Gao
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shun-Fan Wu
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China/State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Jiangsu, China
- * E-mail:
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17
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Zanco B, Mirth CK, Sgrò CM, Piper MDW. A dietary sterol trade-off determines lifespan responses to dietary restriction in Drosophila melanogaster females. eLife 2021; 10:e62335. [PMID: 33494859 PMCID: PMC7837700 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Diet plays a significant role in maintaining lifelong health. In particular, lowering the dietary protein: carbohydrate ratio can improve lifespan. This has been interpreted as a direct effect of these macronutrients on physiology. Using Drosophila melanogaster, we show that the role of protein and carbohydrate on lifespan is indirect, acting by altering the partitioning of limiting amounts of dietary sterols between reproduction and lifespan. Shorter lifespans in flies fed on high protein: carbohydrate diets can be rescued by supplementing their food with cholesterol. Not only does this fundamentally alter the way we interpret the mechanisms of lifespan extension by dietary restriction, these data highlight the important principle that life histories can be affected by nutrient-dependent trade-offs that are indirect and independent of the nutrients (often macronutrients) that are the focus of study. This brings us closer to understanding the mechanistic basis of dietary restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Zanco
- Monash University, School of Biological SciencesClaytonAustralia
| | - Christen K Mirth
- Monash University, School of Biological SciencesClaytonAustralia
| | - Carla M Sgrò
- Monash University, School of Biological SciencesClaytonAustralia
| | - Matthew DW Piper
- Monash University, School of Biological SciencesClaytonAustralia
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18
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Carvalho-Santos Z, Cardoso-Figueiredo R, Elias AP, Tastekin I, Baltazar C, Ribeiro C. Cellular metabolic reprogramming controls sugar appetite in Drosophila. Nat Metab 2020; 2:958-973. [PMID: 32868922 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-020-0266-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cellular metabolic reprogramming is an important mechanism by which cells rewire their metabolism to promote proliferation and cell growth. This process has been mostly studied in the context of tumorigenesis, but less is known about its relevance for nonpathological processes and how it affects whole-animal physiology. Here, we show that metabolic reprogramming in Drosophila female germline cells affects nutrient preferences of animals. Egg production depends on the upregulation of the activity of the pentose phosphate pathway in the germline, which also specifically increases the animal's appetite for sugar, the key nutrient fuelling this metabolic pathway. We provide functional evidence that the germline alters sugar appetite by regulating the expression of the fat-body-secreted satiety factor Fit. Our findings demonstrate that the cellular metabolic program of a small set of cells is able to increase the animal's preference for specific nutrients through inter-organ communication to promote specific metabolic and cellular outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zita Carvalho-Santos
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Rita Cardoso-Figueiredo
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Elias
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ibrahim Tastekin
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Célia Baltazar
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carlos Ribeiro
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.
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19
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Henriques SF, Dhakan DB, Serra L, Francisco AP, Carvalho-Santos Z, Baltazar C, Elias AP, Anjos M, Zhang T, Maddocks ODK, Ribeiro C. Metabolic cross-feeding in imbalanced diets allows gut microbes to improve reproduction and alter host behaviour. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4236. [PMID: 32843654 PMCID: PMC7447780 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of commensal bacteria on the host arises from complex microbial-diet-host interactions. Mapping metabolic interactions in gut microbial communities is therefore key to understand how the microbiome influences the host. Here we use an interdisciplinary approach including isotope-resolved metabolomics to show that in Drosophila melanogaster, Acetobacter pomorum (Ap) and Lactobacillus plantarum (Lp) a syntrophic relationship is established to overcome detrimental host diets and identify Ap as the bacterium altering the host's feeding decisions. Specifically, we show that Ap uses the lactate produced by Lp to supply amino acids that are essential to Lp, allowing it to grow in imbalanced diets. Lactate is also necessary and sufficient for Ap to alter the fly's protein appetite. Our data show that gut bacterial communities use metabolic interactions to become resilient to detrimental host diets. These interactions also ensure the constant flow of metabolites used by the microbiome to alter reproduction and host behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia F Henriques
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Darshan B Dhakan
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Lúcia Serra
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Ana Patrícia Francisco
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Zita Carvalho-Santos
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Célia Baltazar
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Elias
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Margarida Anjos
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Tong Zhang
- University of Glasgow Institute of Cancer Sciences, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Oliver D K Maddocks
- University of Glasgow Institute of Cancer Sciences, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Carlos Ribeiro
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal.
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20
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Ezra-Nevo G, Henriques SF, Ribeiro C. The diet-microbiome tango: how nutrients lead the gut brain axis. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 62:122-132. [PMID: 32199342 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nutrients and the microbiome have a profound impact on the brain by influencing its development and function in health and disease. The mechanisms by which they shape brain function have only started to be uncovered. Here we propose that the interaction of diet with the microbiome is at the core of most mechanisms by which gut microbes affect host brain function. The microbiome acts on the host by altering the nutrients in the diet and by using them as precursors for synthetizing psychoactive metabolites. Diet is also a major modulator of gut microbiome composition making this another key mechanism by which they affect the host brain. Nutrient-microbiome-host interactions therefore provide an overarching framework to understand the function of the gut-brain axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gili Ezra-Nevo
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Sílvia F Henriques
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal
| | - Carlos Ribeiro
- Behavior and Metabolism Laboratory, Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, 1400-038, Portugal.
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