1
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Wilts S, Haider H. Concurrent visual sequence learning. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:2086-2100. [PMID: 36947194 PMCID: PMC10457409 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01810-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Many researchers in the field of implicit statistical learning agree that there does not exist one general implicit learning mechanism, but rather, that implicit learning takes place in highly specialized encapsulated modules. However, the exact representational content of these modules is still under debate. While there is ample evidence for a distinction between modalities (e.g., visual, auditory perception), the representational content of the modules might even be distinguished by features within the same modalities (e.g., location, color, and shape within the visual modality). In implicit sequence learning, there is evidence for the latter hypothesis, as a stimulus-color sequence can be learned concurrently with a stimulus-location sequence. Our aim was to test whether this also holds true for non-spatial features within the visual modality. This has been shown in artificial grammar learning, but not yet in implicit sequence learning. Hence, in Experiment 1, we replicated an artificial grammar learning experiment of Conway and Christiansen (2006) in which participants were supposed to learn color and shape grammars concurrently. In Experiment 2, we investigated concurrent learning of sequences with an implicit sequence learning paradigm: the serial reaction time task. Here, we found evidence for concurrent learning of two sequences, a color and shape sequence. Overall, the findings converge to the assumption that implicit learning might be based on features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Wilts
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Hilde Haider
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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2
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Jaap C, Maack MC, Taesler P, Steinicke F, Rose M. Enriched environments enhance the development of explicit memory in an incidental learning task. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18717. [PMID: 36333393 PMCID: PMC9636381 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23226-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning, rendered in an implicit (unconscious) or explicit (conscious) way, is a crucial part of our daily life. Different factors, like attention or motivation, influence the transformation from implicit to explicit memory. Via virtual reality a lively and engaging surrounding can be created, whereby motivational processes are assumed to be a vital part of the transition from implicit to explicit memory. In the present study, we tested the impact of an enriched virtual reality compared to two conventional, non-enriched 2D-computer-screen based tasks on implicit to explicit memory transformation, using an audio-visual sequential association task. We hypothesized, that the immersive nature of the VR surrounding enhances the transfer from implicit to explicit memory. Notably, the overall amount of learned sequence pairs were not significantly different between experimental groups, but the degree of awareness was affected by the different settings. However, we observed an increased level of explicitly remembered pairs within the VR group compared to two screen-based groups. This finding clearly demonstrates that a near-natural experimental setting affects the transformation process from implicit to explicit memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Jaap
- grid.13648.380000 0001 2180 3484NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marike C. Maack
- grid.13648.380000 0001 2180 3484NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Taesler
- grid.13648.380000 0001 2180 3484NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Frank Steinicke
- grid.9026.d0000 0001 2287 2617Human-Computer Interaction, Department of Informatics, University of Hamburg, Vogt-Kölln-Str. 30, 22527 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Rose
- grid.13648.380000 0001 2180 3484NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
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3
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LU Z, LIU M, LIU Y, MA P, ZHANG R. Exploring the representational mechanism of implicit sequence learning: Evidence from eye movements. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2022. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2022.00779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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4
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Medimorec S, Milin P, Divjak D. Inhibition of Eye Movements Disrupts Spatial Sequence Learning. Exp Psychol 2021; 68:221-228. [PMID: 34918540 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Implicit sequence learning is an integral part of human experience, yet the nature of the mechanisms underlying this type of learning remains a matter of debate. In the current study, we provide a test for two accounts of implicit sequence learning, that is, one that highlights sequence learning in the absence of any motor responses (with suppressed eye movements) and one that highlights the relative contribution of the motor processes (i.e., eye movements) to learning. To adjudicate between these accounts and determine whether a motor response is a requisite process in sequence learning, we used anticipation measures to compare performance on the standard oculomotor serial reaction time (SRT) task and on a version of the SRT task where the eye movements were restricted during the learning phase. our results demonstrated an increased proportion of correct anticipations in the standard SRT task compared to the restricted-movement task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srdan Medimorec
- Department of Psychology, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Petar Milin
- Department of Modern Languages, University of Birmingham, UK
| | - Dagmar Divjak
- Department of Modern Languages, University of Birmingham, UK.,Department of English Language and Linguistics, University of Birmingham, UK
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5
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Röttger E, Janczyk M, Haider H, Fischer R. No reduction of between-task interference in a dual-task with a repeating sequence of SOAs. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 221:103451. [PMID: 34864481 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
A frequent observation in dual-tasking is that spatially or conceptually (in)compatible Task 2 response features can interfere with responses in Task 1 (backward crosstalk effect; BCE). Such between-task interference is, at least to some degree, under strategic control. It has been shown that the size of the BCE can be modulated by instructions, contextual regularities, recent experience of conflict, and motivational factors. Especially large temporal task overlap (i.e., short stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA) represents a condition of potentially high levels of between-task interference. Accordingly, Fischer and Dreisbach (2015) showed that specific stimuli, associated with mostly short SOAs, were able to reduce the size of the BCE. In the present study, we investigated whether a regular sequence of SOAs can also be used for contextual regulation of the BCE. In a dual-task with spatially (in)compatible hand- and foot-responses, we implemented a repeating sequence of three SOAs. If participants learned this sequence and used it for task shielding, the BCE should decrease over time in the sequence blocks, but should increase in a subsequent random block. However, this prediction was not supported in two experiments (N = 32 each). Instead, the size of the BCE was constant across all blocks (BFs10 < 1 for the respective interactions). This is an important result, as it points at the necessity to discover the appropriate conditions allowing implicit SOA sequence learning and to further investigate whether or how the resulting implicit sequence knowledge can serve shielding against between-task interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Röttger
- University of Bremen, Department of Psychology, Germany.
| | | | - Hilde Haider
- University of Cologne, Department of Psychology, Germany
| | - Rico Fischer
- University of Greifswald, Department of Psychology, Germany
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6
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Esser S, Lustig C, Haider H. What triggers explicit awareness in implicit sequence learning? Implications from theories of consciousness. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 86:1442-1457. [PMID: 34586489 PMCID: PMC9177494 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01594-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This article aims to continue the debate on how explicit, conscious knowledge can arise in an implicit learning situation. We review hitherto existing theoretical views and evaluate their compatibility with two current, successful scientific concepts of consciousness: The Global Workspace Theory and Higher-Order Thought Theories. In this context, we introduce the Unexpected Event Hypothesis (Frensch et al., Attention and implicit learning, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003) in an elaborated form and discuss its advantage in explaining the emergence of conscious knowledge in an implicit learning situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Esser
- Department of General Psychology 1, University of Cologne, NRW, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Clarissa Lustig
- Department of General Psychology 1, University of Cologne, NRW, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hilde Haider
- Department of General Psychology 1, University of Cologne, NRW, Cologne, Germany
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7
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Wiegand I, Westenberg E, Wolfe JM. Order, please! Explicit sequence learning in hybrid search in younger and older age. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:1220-1235. [PMID: 33876402 PMCID: PMC8313466 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01157-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Sequence learning effects in simple perceptual and motor tasks are largely unaffected by normal aging. However, less is known about sequence learning in more complex cognitive tasks that involve attention and memory processes and how this changes with age. In this study, we examined whether incidental and intentional sequence learning would facilitate hybrid visual and memory search in younger and older adults. Observers performed a hybrid search task, in which they memorized four or 16 target objects and searched for any of those target objects in displays with four or 16 objects. The memorized targets appeared either in a repeating sequential order or in random order. In the first experiment, observers were not told about the sequence before the experiment. Only a subset of younger adults and none of the older adults incidentally learned the sequence. The "learners" acquired explicit knowledge about the sequence and searched faster in the sequence compared to random condition. In the second experiment, observers were told about the sequence before the search task. Both younger and older adults searched faster in sequence blocks than random blocks. Older adults, however, showed this sequence-learning effect only in blocks with smaller target sets. Our findings indicate that explicit sequence knowledge can facilitate hybrid search, as it allows observers to predict the next target and restrict their visual and memory search. In older age, the sequence-learning effect is constrained by load, presumably due to age-related decline in executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Wiegand
- Donders Institute for Brain, Behavior and Cognition, Department of Neuropsychology and Rehabilitation Psychology, Radboud University, Postbus 9104, 6500, HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Erica Westenberg
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jeremy M Wolfe
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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8
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Koch I, Blotenberg I, Fedosejew V, Stephan DN. Implicit perceptual learning of visual-auditory modality sequences. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 202:102979. [PMID: 31785577 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 10/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined perceptual modality sequence learning by presenting number words either visually (V) or auditorily (A). Manual responses were assigned to number identity, which was random, but the stimulus modalities followed a predictable 6-element sequence (e.g., VVAAVA). In two experiments, we assessed sequence-specific learning as the performance difference between the predictable sequence and a random transfer sequence. We expected learning benefits, but for visual trials we did not find any clear predictability benefits, and, surprisingly, for auditory trials we even found a general processing disadvantage (i.e., a predictability cost) for auditory trials (Experiment 1) or a cost-benefit pattern (Experiment 2, with equated shift rates in predictable and random sequences), with costs for auditory repetition trials and benefits for shifting to auditory processing. Hence, overall there was a general learning "cost" (Experiment 1) or a null net benefit of predictability for performance (Experiment 2). Together, the findings reveal a modality-specific sensitivity towards variations in shift frequency and modality predictability only for auditory trials, but there was no overall benefit of modality-specific sequence learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iring Koch
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Iris Blotenberg
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Denise N Stephan
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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9
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Lustig C, Haider H. Response-effects trigger the development of explicit knowledge. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2019; 194:87-100. [PMID: 30822693 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In implicit learning, task-redundant response-effects can enhance the development of explicit knowledge. Here, we investigated whether learning a fixed sequence of effects (stimuli occurring immediately after the participant's keypress, but are not mapped to the identity of the respective response) influence the development of explicit rather than implicit knowledge when these effects are afterwards mapped to the identity of the responses. We tested first, whether participants would learn a fixed sequence of effects in a serial reaction time task when these effects were not mapped to the identity of the responses. Next, we tested whether learning this effect sequence in advance would facilitate the development of explicit knowledge about a contingently mapped sequence of responses. The results showed that participants acquired implicit knowledge when confronted with only the effect sequence. Moreover, the further findings suggest that learning the effect sequence in advance led to the development of primarily explicit knowledge about a subsequently added response-location sequence. We interpret these results in light of the Unexpected-Event hypothesis: A sudden feeling of sense of agency is unexpected and triggers inference processes. PsycINFO classification codes: 2340, 2343.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Lustig
- University of Cologne, Department of Psychology, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931 Köln, Germany.
| | - Hilde Haider
- University of Cologne, Department of Psychology, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, 50931 Köln, Germany
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10
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Kahana-Levy N, Shavitzky-Golkin S, Borowsky A, Vakil E. The effects of repetitive presentation of specific hazards on eye movements in hazard perception training, of experienced and young-inexperienced drivers. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2019; 122:255-267. [PMID: 30391702 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2018.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent evidence shows that compared to experienced drivers, young-inexperienced drivers are more likely to be involved in a crash mainly due to their poor hazard perception (HP) abilities. This skill develops with experience and may be developed through training. We assumed that as any other skill, HP developed through implicit learning. Nevertheless, current training methods, rely on deliberate learning where young-inexperienced drivers are instructed what hazards that they should seek and where they might be located. In this exploratory study, we investigated the effectiveness of a novel training procedure, in which learners were repeatedly exposed to target video clips of driving scenarios embedded within filler scenarios. Each of the target videos included scenarios of either a visible hazard, a hidden materialized hazard or hidden unmaterialized hazard. Twenty-three young-inexperienced drivers and 35 experienced drivers participated in training session followed by a learning transference testing session and 24 additional young-inexperienced drivers participated only in the transference testing session with no training, during which participants were shown novel hazards video clips. Participants responded by pressing a button when they identified a hazard. Eye movement was also tracked using fixations patterns as a proxy to evaluate HP performance. During training, young-inexperienced drivers gradually increased their focus on visible materialized hazards but exhibited no learning curve with respect to hidden hazards. During the learning transference session, both trained groups focused on hazards earlier compared to untrained drivers. These results imply that repetitive training may facilitate HP acquisition among young-inexperienced drivers. Patterns concerning experienced drivers are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Avinoam Borowsky
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Eli Vakil
- Psychology Department, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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11
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Jablonowski J, Taesler P, Fu Q, Rose M. Implicit acoustic sequence learning recruits the hippocampus. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0209590. [PMID: 30576383 PMCID: PMC6303117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The exclusive role of the medial temporal lobe in explicit memory has been questioned by several studies reporting medial temporal lobe involvement during implicit learning. Prior studies have demonstrated that hippocampal engagement is present during the implicit learning of perceptual associations, however, it is absent during learning response-related associations. Therefore, it was hypothesized that the function of the medial temporal lobe during implicit learning is related to the extraction of perceptual associations in general. While in most implicit learning tasks visual stimuli were used, the aim of the current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study was to detect whether activations within medial temporal lobe structures are also found during implicit learning of auditory associations. In a modified version of the classical serial reaction time task, participants reacted to the presentation of five different tones. Unbeknownst to the participants, the tones were presented with an underlying sequential regularity that could be learned. To avoid an influence of response learning on acoustic associative learning, response buttons were remapped in every trial. After learning, two different tests were used to measure participants' conscious knowledge about the underlying sequence in order to assess the amount of implicit memory and to exclude participants with explicit knowledge acquired during learning. fMRI results revealed hippocampal activations for implicit learning of the acoustic sequence. When detecting a relation between implicit learning of acoustic associations and hippocampal activations, this study indicated a relation between hippocampal activations and memory formation of perceptual-based relational representation regardless of explicit knowledge. Thus, present findings suggest a general functional role for the formation of sequenced perceptual associations independent of the involvement of awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Jablonowski
- NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Taesler
- NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Qiufang Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Michael Rose
- NeuroImage Nord, Department for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistrasse, Hamburg, Germany
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12
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Haider H, Esser S, Eberhardt K. Feature codes in implicit sequence learning: perceived stimulus locations transfer to motor response locations. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 84:192-203. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-0980-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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13
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Abstract
Different studies have shown that action-effect associations seem to enhance implicit learning of motor sequences. In a recent study (Haider et al., Conscious Cognit 26:145-161, 2014), we found indications that action-effect learning might play a special role in acquiring explicit knowledge within an implicit learning situation. The current study aims at directly manipulating the action-effect contingencies in a Serial Reaction Time Task and examining its impact on explicit sequence knowledge. For this purpose, we created a situation in which the participants' responses led to a melodic tone sequence. For one group, these effect tones were contingently bound to the sequential responses and immediately followed the key press; for the second group, the tones were delayed by 400 ms. For a third group, the tones also followed the response immediately and resulted in the same melody but were not contingently bound to the responses. A fourth control group received no effect tones at all. Only the group that experienced contingent effect tones that directly followed the response showed an increase in explicit sequence knowledge. The results are discussed in terms of the multi-modal structure of action-effect associations and the ideomotor principle of action control.
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14
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Öllinger M, von Müller A. Search and Coherence-Building in Intuition and Insight Problem Solving. Front Psychol 2017; 8:827. [PMID: 28611702 PMCID: PMC5447020 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Coherence-building is a key concept for a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of intuition and insight problem solving. There are several accounts that address certain aspects of coherence-building. However, there is still no proper framework defining the general principles of coherence-building. We propose a four-stage model of coherence-building. The first stage starts with spreading activation restricted by constraints. This dynamic is a well-defined rule based process. The second stage is characterized by detecting a coherent state. We adopted a fluency account assuming that the ease of information processing indicates the realization of a coherent state. The third stage is designated to evaluate the result of the coherence-building process and assess whether the given problem is solved or not. If the coherent state does not fit the requirements of the task, the process re-enters at stage 1. These three stages characterize intuition. For insight problem solving a fourth stage is necessary, which restructures the given representation after repeated failure, so that a new search space results. The new search space enables new coherent states. We provide a review of the most important findings, outline our model, present a large number of examples, deduce potential new paradigms and measures that might help to decipher the underlying cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Öllinger
- Parmenides Center for the Study of ThinkingPullach, Germany.,Psychological Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenMunich, Germany
| | - Albrecht von Müller
- Parmenides Center for the Study of ThinkingPullach, Germany.,Philosophical Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenMunich, Germany
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15
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Esser S, Haider H. The Emergence of Explicit Knowledge in a Serial Reaction Time Task: The Role of Experienced Fluency and Strength of Representation. Front Psychol 2017; 8:502. [PMID: 28421018 PMCID: PMC5378801 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) is an important paradigm to study the properties of unconscious learning processes. One specifically interesting and still controversially discussed topic are the conditions under which unconsciously acquired knowledge becomes conscious knowledge. The different assumptions about the underlying mechanisms can contrastively be separated into two accounts: single system views in which the strengthening of associative weights throughout training gradually turns implicit knowledge into explicit knowledge, and dual system views in which implicit knowledge itself does not become conscious. Rather, it requires a second process which detects changes in performance and is able to acquire conscious knowledge. In a series of three experiments, we manipulated the arrangement of sequential and deviant trials. In an SRTT training, participants either received mini-blocks of sequential trials followed by mini-blocks of deviant trials (22 trials each) or they received sequential and deviant trials mixed randomly. Importantly the number of correct and deviant transitions was the same for both conditions. Experiment 1 showed that both conditions acquired a comparable amount of implicit knowledge, expressed in different test tasks. Experiment 2 further demonstrated that both conditions differed in their subjectively experienced fluency of the task, with more fluency experienced when trained with mini-blocks. Lastly, Experiment 3 revealed that the participants trained with longer mini-blocks of sequential and deviant material developed more explicit knowledge. Results are discussed regarding their compatibility with different assumptions about the emergence of explicit knowledge in an implicit learning situation, especially with respect to the role of metacognitive judgements and more specifically the Unexpected-Event Hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Esser
- General Psychology 1, Department of Psychology, University of CologneCologne, Germany
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16
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Abstract
According to consciousness involvement, human’s learning can be roughly classified into explicit learning and implicit learning. Contrasting strongly to explicit learning with clear targets and rules, such as our school study of mathematics, learning is implicit when we acquire new information without intending to do so. Research from psychology indicates that implicit learning is ubiquitous in our daily life. Moreover, implicit learning plays an important role in human visual perception. But in the past 60 years, most of the well-known machine-learning models aimed to simulate explicit learning while the work of modeling implicit learning was relatively limited, especially for computer vision applications. This article proposes a novel unsupervised computational model for implicit visual learning by exploring dissipative system, which provides a unifying macroscopic theory to connect biology with physics. We test the proposed Dissipative Implicit Learning Model (DILM) on various datasets. The experiments show that DILM not only provides a good match to human behavior but also improves the explicit machine-learning performance obviously on image classification tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Liu
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yang Liu
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shenghua Zhong
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Songtao Wu
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
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17
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Yordanova J, Kirov R, Kolev V. Increased Performance Variability as a Marker of Implicit/Explicit Interactions in Knowledge Awareness. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1957. [PMID: 26779047 PMCID: PMC4688353 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Only some, but not all, individuals who practice tasks with dual structure, overt and covert, are able to comprehend consciously a hidden regularity. The formation of implicit representations of regularity has been proposed to be critical for subsequent awareness. However, explicit knowledge also has been predicted by the activation of executive control systems during task encoding. The present study analyzed performance patterns in participants who could comprehend task regularity and those who could not at delayed recall. Specifically, the role of practice-based knowledge of sequence for individual awareness was focused on. A lateralized variant of the visual serial response time task (SRTT) comprising structured and random blocks was practiced in implicit conditions by 109 participants before and after 10-h retention, with explicit knowledge about covert sequence tested thereafter. Sequence learning was quantified using the normalized difference between response speed in regular and subsequent random blocks. Patterns of performance dynamics were evaluated using response speed, response variability, and error rate. Major results demonstrate that (1) All participants who became aware of the sequence (solvers), gained practice-based sequence knowledge at learning or after retention, (2) Such knowledge also was accumulated during learning by participants who remained fully unaware about covert task structure, (3) Only in explicit solvers, however, was sequence-specific learning accompanied by a prominent increase in performance variability. (4) Specific features and dynamics of performance patterns distinguished different cognitive modes of SRTT processing, each of which supported subsequent knowledge awareness. It is concluded that a behavioral precursor of sequence awareness is the combination of speeded sequence processing and increased performance variability, pointing to an interaction between implicit and explicit processing systems. These results may contribute to refine the evaluation of online and offline learning of tasks with dual structure, and to extend understanding of increased behavioral variability in both normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Yordanova
- Cognitive Psychophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Science Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Roumen Kirov
- Cognitive Psychophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Science Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Vasil Kolev
- Cognitive Psychophysiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Science Sofia, Bulgaria
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Haider H, Eberhardt K, Esser S, Rose M. Implicit visual learning: How the task set modulates learning by determining the stimulus–response binding. Conscious Cogn 2014; 26:145-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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