What neuromodulation and lesion studies tell us about the function of the mirror neuron system and embodied cognition

Predictive coding for the actions and emotions of others and its deficits in autism spectrum disorders

Traditionally, the neural basis of social perception has been studied by showing participants brief examples of the actions or emotions of others presented in randomized order to prevent participants from anticipating what others do and feel. This approach is optimal to isolate the importance of information flow from lower to higher cortical areas. The degree to which feedback connections and Bayesian hierarchical predictive coding contribute to how mammals process more complex social stimuli has been less explored, and will be the focus of this review. We illustrate paradigms that start to capture how participants predict the actions and emotions of others under more ecological conditions, and discuss the brain activity measurement methods suitable to reveal the importance of feedback connections in these predictions. Together, these efforts draw a richer picture of social cognition in which predictive coding and feedback connections play significant roles. We further discuss how the notion of predicting coding is influencing how we think of autism spectrum disorder.

Increased sensorimotor activity during categorisation of emotionally ambiguous faces

Actions are rarely devoid of emotional content. Thus, a more complete picture of the neural mechanisms underlying the mental simulation of observed actions requires more research using emotion information. The present study used high-density electroencephalography to investigate mental simulation associated with facial emotion categorisation. Alpha-mu rhythm modulation was measured at each frequency, from 8 Hz to 13 Hz, to infer the degree of sensorimotor simulation. Results suggest the sensitivity of the sensorimotor activity to emotional information, because (1) categorising static images of neutral faces as happy or sad was associated with stronger suppression in the central region than categorising clearly happy faces, (2) there was preliminary evidence indicating that the strongest suppression in the central region was in response to neutral faces, followed by sad and then happy faces and (3) in the control task, which required categorising images with the head oriented right, left, or forward as right or left, differences between conditions showed a pattern more indicative of task difficulty rather than sensorimotor engagement. Dissociable processing of emotional information in facial expressions and directionality information in head orientations was further captured in beta band activity (14-20 Hz). Stronger mu suppression to neutral faces indicates that sensorimotor simulation extends beyond crude motor mimicry. We propose that mu rhythm responses to facial expressions may serve as a biomarker for empathy circuit activation. Future research should investigate whether atypical or inconsistent mu rhythm responses to facial expressions indicate difficulties in understanding or sharing emotions.

An embodied approach to fetal and newborn perceptual and sensorimotor development

The embodied approach argues that interaction with the environment plays a crucial role in brain development and that the presence of sensory effects generated by movements is fundamental. The movement of the fetus is initially random. Then, the repeated execution of the movement creates a link between it and its sensory effects, allowing the selection of movements that produce expected sensations. During fetal life, the brain develops from a transitory fetal circuit to the permanent cortical circuit, which completes development after birth. Accordingly, this process must concern the interaction of the fetus with the intrauterine environment and of the newborn with the new aerial environment, which provides a new sensory stimulation, light. The goal of the present review is to provide suggestions for neuroscientific research capable of shedding light on brain development process by describing from a functional point of view the relationship between the motor and sensory abilities of fetuses and newborns and the increasing complexity of their interaction with objects in the womb and outside of it.

Awareness of embodiment enhances enjoyment and engages sensorimotor cortices

Whether in performing arts, sporting, or everyday contexts, when we watch others move, we tend to enjoy bodies moving in synchrony. Our enjoyment of body movements is further enhanced by our own prior experience with performing those movements, or our 'embodied experience'. The relationships between movement synchrony and enjoyment, as well as embodied experience and movement enjoyment, are well known. The interaction between enjoyment of movements, synchrony, and embodiment is less well understood, and may be central for developing new approaches for enriching social interaction. To examine the interplay between movement enjoyment, synchrony, and embodiment, we asked participants to copy another person's movements as accurately as possible, thereby gaining embodied experience of movement sequences. Participants then viewed other dyads performing the same or different sequences synchronously, and we assessed participants' recognition of having performed these sequences, as well as their enjoyment of each movement sequence. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy to measure cortical activation over frontotemporal sensorimotor regions while participants performed and viewed movements. We found that enjoyment was greatest when participants had mirrored the sequence and recognised it, suggesting that awareness of embodiment may be central to enjoyment of synchronous movements. Exploratory analyses of relationships between cortical activation and enjoyment and recognition implicated the sensorimotor cortices, which subserve action observation and aesthetic processing. These findings hold implications for clinical research and therapies seeking to foster successful social interaction.

On computational models of theory of mind and the imitative reinforcement learning in spiking neural networks

Theory of Mind is referred to the ability of inferring other's mental states, and it plays a crucial role in social cognition and learning. Biological evidences indicate that complex circuits are involved in this ability, including the mirror neuron system. The mirror neuron system influences imitation abilities and action understanding, leading to learn through observing others. To simulate this imitative learning behavior, a Theory-of-Mind-based Imitative Reinforcement Learning (ToM-based ImRL) framework is proposed. Employing the bio-inspired spiking neural networks and the mechanisms of the mirror neuron system, ToM-based ImRL is a bio-inspired computational model which enables an agent to effectively learn how to act in an interactive environment through observing an expert, inferring its goals, and imitating its behaviors. The aim of this paper is to review some computational attempts in modeling ToM and to explain the proposed ToM-based ImRL framework which is tested in the environment of River Raid game from Atari 2600 series.

Emotion regulation from an action-control perspective

Despite increasing interest in emotional processes in cognitive science, theories on emotion regulation have remained rather isolated, predominantly focused on cognitive regulation strategies such as reappraisal. However, recent neurocognitive evidence suggests that early emotion regulation may involve sensorimotor control in addition to other emotion-regulation processes. We propose an action-oriented view of emotion regulation, in which feedforward predictions develop from action-selection mechanisms. Those can account for acute emotional-action control as well as more abstract instances of emotion regulation such as cognitive reappraisal. We argue the latter occurs in absence of overt motor output, yet in the presence of full-blown autonomic, visceral, and subjective changes. This provides an integrated framework with testable neuro-computational predictions and concrete starting points for intervention to improve emotion control in affective disorders.

Observational learning of atypical biological kinematics in autism

Observing and voluntarily imitating the biological kinematics displayed by a model underpins the acquisition of new motor skills via sensorimotor processes linking perception with action. Differences in voluntary imitation in autism could be related to sensorimotor processing activity during action-observation of biological motion, as well as how sensorimotor integration processing occurs across imitation attempts. Using an observational practice protocol, which minimized the active contribution of the peripheral sensorimotor system, we examined the contribution of sensorimotor processing during action-observation. The data showed that autistic participants imitated both the temporal duration and atypical kinematic profile of the observed movement with a similar level of accuracy as neurotypical participants. These findings suggest the lower-level perception-action processes responsible for encoding biological kinematics during the action-observation phase of imitation are operational in autism. As there was no task-specific engagement of the peripheral sensorimotor system during observational practice, imitation difficulties in autism are most likely underpinned by sensorimotor integration issues related to the processing of efferent and (re)afferent sensorimotor information during trial-to-trial motor execution.

Hand Motions Reveal Attentional Status and Subliminal Semantic Processing: A Mouse-Tracking Technique

Theories of embodied cognition suggest that hand motions and cognition are closely interconnected. An emerging technique of tracking how participants move a computer mouse (i.e., the mouse-tracking technique) has shown advantages over the traditional response time measurement to detect implicit cognitive conflicts. Previous research suggests that attention is essential for subliminal processing to take place at a semantic level. However, this assumption is challenged by evidence showing the presence of subliminal semantic processing in the near-absence of attention. The inconsistency of evidence could stem from the insufficient sensitivity in the response time measurement. Therefore, we examined the role of attention in subliminal semantic processing by analyzing participants' hand motions using the mouse-tracking technique. The results suggest that subliminal semantic processing is not only enhanced by attention but also occurs when attention is disrupted, challenging the necessity of facilitated top-down attention for subliminal semantic processing, as claimed by a number of studies. In addition, by manipulating the color of attentional cues, our experiment shows that the cue color per se could influence participants' response patterns. Overall, the current study suggests that attentional status and subliminal semantic processing can be reliably revealed by temporal-spatial features extracted from cursor motion trajectories.

Trait representation of embodied cognition in dancers pivoting on the extended mirror neuron system: a resting-state fMRI study

Introduction

Dance is an art form that integrates the body and mind through movement. Dancers develop exceptional physical and mental abilities that involve various neurocognitive processes linked to embodied cognition. We propose that dancers' primary trait representation is movement-actuated and relies on the extended mirror neuron system (eMNS).

Methods

A total of 29 dancers and 28 non-dancer controls were recruited. A hierarchical approach of intra-regional and inter-regional functional connectivity (FC) analysis was adopted to probe trait-like neurodynamics within and between regions in the eMNS during rest. Correlation analyses were employed to examine the associations between dance training, creativity, and the FC within and between different brain regions.

Results

Within the eMNS, dancers exhibited increased intra-regional FC in various brain regions compared to non-dancers. These regions include the left inferior frontal gyrus, left ventral premotor cortex, left anterior insula, left posterior cerebellum (crus II), and bilateral basal ganglia (putamen and globus pallidus). Dancers also exhibited greater intrinsic inter-regional FC between the cerebellum and the core/limbic mirror areas within the eMNS. In dancers, there was a negative correlation observed between practice intensity and the intrinsic FC within the eMNS involving the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Additionally, FCs from the basal ganglia to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were found to be negatively correlated with originality in dancers.

Discussion

Our results highlight the proficient communication within the cortical-subcortical hierarchy of the eMNS in dancers, linked to the automaticity and cognitive-motor interactions acquired through training. Altered functional couplings in the eMNS can be regarded as a unique neural signature specific to virtuoso dancers, which might predispose them for skilled dancing performance, perception, and creation.

Fading boundaries between the physical and the social world: Insights and novel techniques from the intersection of these two fields

This review focuses on the subtle interactions between sensory input and social cognition in visual perception. We suggest that body indices, such as gait and posture, can mediate such interactions. Recent trends in cognitive research are trying to overcome approaches that define perception as stimulus-centered and are pointing toward a more embodied agent-dependent perspective. According to this view, perception is a constructive process in which sensory inputs and motivational systems contribute to building an image of the external world. A key notion emerging from new theories on perception is that the body plays a critical role in shaping our perception. Depending on our arm's length, height and capacity of movement, we create our own image of the world based on a continuous compromise between sensory inputs and expected behavior. We use our bodies as natural "rulers" to measure both the physical and the social world around us. We point out the necessity of an integrative approach in cognitive research that takes into account the interplay between social and perceptual dimensions. To this end, we review long-established and novel techniques aimed at measuring bodily states and movements, and their perception, with the assumption that only by combining the study of visual perception and social cognition can we deepen our understanding of both fields.

Failure of motor function-A Developmental Embodiment Research perspective on the systemic effects of stress

Humans are capable to skillfully perform a huge variety of complex movements seemingly effortless and to flexibly adjust movement execution to ever-changing environmental conditions, often without apparent differences in the movement outcome. This impressive ability has sparked scientific interest in the mechanisms underlying movement execution for decades. In this perspective article, we argue that investigating the processes and mechanisms leading to failure of motor functions is a fruitful approach to advance the field of human motor neuroscience and beyond. The study of failure of motor function in specific populations (patient groups, skilled experts) has already provided tremendous insight in the systemic characteristics and multi-level functional dependencies of movement execution. However, particularly the transient failure of function in everyday motor actions remains a blind spot. Coming from the perspective of Developmental Embodiment Research, we argue that the integration of a developmental embodiment and lifespan perspective with existing systemic and multi-level methodological approaches of failure of function analyses provides an integrative, interdisciplinary framework, which will allow us to overcome this shortcoming. We further suggest that stress-induced failure of motor function situations might represent a promising starting point for this endeavor. Identifying the involved cross-level functional dependencies of acute and chronic stress on transient and persistent motor functioning would further advance our knowledge on the mechanisms underlying movement execution, and would allow to identify targets for intervention and prevention across the whole spectrum of motor function and failure.

Seeing Through Each Other's Hearts: Inferring Others' Heart Rate as a Function of Own Heart Rate Perception and Perceived Social Intelligence

Successful social interactions require a good understanding of the emotional states of other people. This information is often not directly communicated but must be inferred. As all emotional experiences are also imbedded in the visceral or interoceptive state of the body (i.e., accelerating heart rate during arousal), successfully inferring the interoceptive states of others may open a window into their emotional state. But how well can people do that? Here, we replicate recent results showing that people can discriminate between the cardiac states (i.e., the resting heartrate) of other people by simply looking at them. We further tested whether the ability to infer the interoceptive states of others depends on one's own interoceptive abilities. We measured people's performance in a cardioception task and their self-reported interoceptive accuracy. Whilst neither was directly associated to their ability to infer the heartrate of another person, we found a significant interaction. Specifically, overestimating one's own interoceptive capacities was associated with a worse performance at inferring the heartrate of others. In contrast, underestimating one's own interoceptive capacities did not have such influence. This pattern suggests that deficient beliefs about own interoceptive capacities can have detrimental effects on inferring the interoceptive states of other people.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-022-00151-4.

Sensory attenuation from action observation

A central claim of many embodied approaches to cognition is that understanding others' actions is achieved by covertly simulating the observed actions and their consequences in one's own motor system. If such a simulation occurs, it may be accomplished through forward models, a component of the motor system already known to perform simulations of actions and their consequences in order to support sensory-monitoring of one's own actions. Forward-model simulations cause an attenuation of sensory intensity, so if the simulations hypothesized by embodied cognition are indeed provided by forward models, then action observation should trigger this sensory attenuation. To test this hypothesis, the experiments reported here measured the perceived intensity of a touch sensation on the finger when participants observed an active touch (a finger reaching to touch a ball) vs. a passive touch (a ball rolling to touch an unmoving finger). The touch sensation was perceived as less intense during observation of active touch in comparison with observation of passive touch, providing evidence that forward models are indeed engaged during action observation. The strength of this sensory attenuation is compared and contrasted with a well-established sensory-amplification effect caused by visual attention. This sensory-amplification effect has not generally been considered in studies related to sensory attenuation in action observation, which may explain conflicting results reported in the field.

The Transdiagnostic Relevance of Self-Other Distinction to Psychiatry Spans Emotional, Cognitive and Motor Domains

Self-other distinction refers to the ability to distinguish between our own and other people's physical and mental states (actions, perceptions, emotions etc.). Both the right temporo-parietal junction and brain areas associated with the human mirror neuron system are likely to critically influence self-other distinction, given their respective contributions to theory of mind and embodied empathy. The degree of appropriate self-other distinction will vary according to the exact social situation, and how helpful it is to feel into, or remain detached from, another person's mental state. Indeed, the emotional resonance that we can share with others affords the gift of empathy, but over-sharing may pose a downside, leading to a range of difficulties from personal distress to paranoia, and perhaps even motor tics and compulsions. The aim of this perspective paper is to consider how evidence from behavioral and neurophysiological studies supports a role for problems with self-other distinction in a range of psychiatric symptoms spanning the emotional, cognitive and motor domains. The various signs and symptoms associated with problematic self-other distinction comprise both maladaptive and adaptive (compensatory) responses to dysfunction within a common underlying neuropsychological mechanism, compelling the adoption of more holistic transdiagnostic therapeutic approaches within Psychiatry.

Photographs of Actions: What Makes Them Special Cues to Social Perception

I have reviewed studies on neural responses to pictured actions in the action observation network (AON) and the cognitive functions of these responses. Based on this review, I have analyzed the specific representational characteristics of action photographs. There has been consensus that AON responses provide viewers with knowledge of observed or pictured actions, but there has been controversy about the properties of this knowledge. Is this knowledge causally provided by AON activities or is it dependent on conceptual processing? What elements of actions does it refer to, and how generalized or specific is it? The answers to these questions have come from studies that used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to stimulate motor or somatosensory cortices. In conjunction with electromyography (EMG), TMS allows researchers to examine changes of the excitability in the corticospinal tract and muscles of people viewing pictured actions. The timing of these changes and muscle specificity enable inferences to be drawn about the cognitive products of processing pictured actions in the AON. Based on a review of studies using TMS and other neuroscience methods, I have proposed a novel hypothetical account that describes the characteristics of action photographs that make them effective cues to social perception. This account includes predictions that can be tested experimentally.

Moving Toward Understanding Autism: Visual-Motor Integration, Imitation, and Social Skill Development

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a behavioral phenotype characterized by impaired development of social-communicative skills and excessive repetitive and stereotyped behaviors. Despite high phenotypic heterogeneity in ASD, a meaningful subpopulation of children with ASD (∼90%) show significant general motor impairment. More focused studies on the nature of motor impairment in ASD reveal that children with ASD are particularly impaired on tasks such as ball catching and motor imitation that require efficient visual-motor integration (VMI). Motor computational approaches also provide evidence for VMI impairment showing that children with ASD form internal sensorimotor representations that bias proprioceptive over visual feedback. Impaired integration of visual information to form internal representations of others' and the external world may explain observed impairments on VMI tasks and motor imitation of others. Motor imitation is crucial for acquiring both social and motor skills, and impaired imitation skill may contribute to the observed core behavioral phenotype of ASD. The current review examines evidence supporting VMI impairment as a core feature of ASD that may contribute to both impaired motor imitation and social-communicative skill development. We propose that understanding the neurobiological mechanisms underlying VMI impairment in ASD may be key to discovery of therapeutics to address disability in children and adults with ASD.

Research on Discrete Semantics in Continuous Hand Joint Movement Based on Perception and Expression

Continuous movements of the hand contain discrete expressions of meaning, forming a variety of semantic gestures. For example, it is generally considered that the bending of the finger includes three semantic states of bending, half bending, and straightening. However, there is still no research on the number of semantic states that can be conveyed by each movement primitive of the hand, especially the interval of each semantic state and the representative movement angle. To clarify these issues, we conducted experiments of perception and expression. Experiments 1 and 2 focused on perceivable semantic levels and boundaries of different motion primitive units from the perspective of visual semantic perception. Experiment 3 verified and optimized the segmentation results obtained above and further determined the typical motion values of each semantic state. Furthermore, in Experiment 4, the empirical application of the above semantic state segmentation was illustrated by using Leap Motion as an example. We ended up with the discrete gesture semantic expression space both in the real world and Leap Motion Digital World, containing the clearly defined number of semantic states of each hand motion primitive unit and boundaries and typical motion angle values of each state. Construction of this quantitative semantic expression will play a role in guiding and advancing research in the fields of gesture coding, gesture recognition, and gesture design.

Neural mechanisms necessary for empathy-related phenomena across species

The neural basis of empathy and prosociality has received much interest over the past decades. Neuroimaging studies localized a network of brain regions with activity that correlates with empathy. Here, we review how the emergence of rodent and nonhuman primate models of empathy-related phenomena supplements human lesion and neuromodulation studies providing evidence that activity in several nodes is necessary for these phenomena to occur. We review proof that (i) affective states triggered by the emotions of others, (ii) motivations to act in ways that benefit others, and (iii) emotion recognition can be altered by perturbing brain activity in many nodes identified by human neuroimaging, with strongest evidence for the cingulate and the amygdala. We also include evidence that manipulations of the oxytocin system and analgesics can have such effects, the latter providing causal evidence for the recruitment of an individual's own nociceptive system to feel with the pain of others.

The Effects of Intranasal Oxytocin on Neural and Behavioral Responses to Social Touch in the Form of Massage

Manually-administered massage can potently increase endogenous oxytocin concentrations and neural activity in social cognition and reward regions and intranasal oxytocin can increase the pleasantness of social touch. In the present study, we investigated whether intranasal oxytocin modulates behavioral and neural responses to foot massage applied manually or by machine using a randomized placebo-controlled within-subject pharmaco-fMRI design. 46 male participants underwent blocks of massage of each type where they both received and imagined receiving the massage. Intranasal oxytocin significantly increased subjective pleasantness ratings of the manual but not the machine massage and neural responses in key regions involved in reward (orbitofrontal cortex, dorsal striatum and ventral tegmental area), social cognition (superior temporal sulcus and inferior parietal lobule), emotion and salience (amygdala and anterior cingulate and insula) and default mode networks (medial prefrontal cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate, and precuneus) as well as a number of sensory and motor processing regions. Both neural and behavioral effects of oxytocin occurred independent of whether subjects thought the massage was applied by a male or female masseur. These findings support the importance of oxytocin for enhancing positive behavioral and neural responses to social touch in the form of manually administered massage and that a combination of intranasal oxytocin and massage may have therapeutic potential in autism.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION

The Effects of Oxytocin on Social Touch; registration ID: NCT03278860; URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03278860.

Proactive gaze is present during biological and non-biological motion observation

Others' action observation activates in the observer a coordinated hand-eye motor program, covert for the hand (i.e. motor resonance), and overt for the eye (i.e. proactive gaze), similar to that of the observed agent. The biological motion hypothesis of action anticipation claims that proactive gaze occurs only in the presence of biological motion, and that kinematic information is sufficient to determine the anticipation process. The results of the present study did not support the biological motion hypothesis of action anticipation. Specifically, proactive gaze was present during observation of both a biological accelerated-decelerated motion and a non-biological constant velocity motion (Experiment 1), in the presence of a barrier able to restrict differences between the two kinematics to the motion profile of individual markers prior to contact (Experiment 2), but only if an object was present at the end point of the movement trajectory (Experiment 3). Furthermore, proactive gaze was found independently of the presence of end effects temporally congruent with the instant in which the movement stopped (Experiments 4, and 5). We propose that the involvement of the observer's motor system is not restricted to when the agent moves with natural kinematics, and it is mandatory whenever the presence of an agent or a goal is evident, regardless of physical appearance, natural kinematics, and the possibility to identify the action behind the stimulus.

Non-invasive stimulation in the social brain: the methodological challenges

Use of non-invasive brain stimulation methods (NIBS) has become a common approach to study social processing in addition to behavioural, imaging and lesion studies. However, research using NIBS to investigate social processing faces challenges. Overcoming these is important to allow valid and reliable interpretation of findings in neurotypical cohorts, but also to allow us to tailor NIBS protocols to atypical groups with social difficulties. In this review, we consider the utility of brain stimulation as a technique to study and modulate social processing. We also discuss challenges that face researchers using NIBS to study social processing in neurotypical adults with a view to highlighting potential solutions. Finally, we discuss additional challenges that face researchers using NIBS to study and modulate social processing in atypical groups. These are important to consider given that NIBS protocols are rarely tailored to atypical groups before use. Instead, many rely on protocols designed for neurotypical adults despite differences in brain function that are likely to impact response to NIBS.

Action perception recruits the cerebellum and is impaired in patients with spinocerebellar ataxia

Our cerebellum has been proposed to generate prediction signals that may help us plan and execute our motor programmes. However, to what extent our cerebellum is also actively involved in perceiving the action of others remains to be elucidated. Using functional MRI, we show here that observing goal-directed hand actions of others bilaterally recruits lobules VI, VIIb and VIIIa in the cerebellar hemispheres. Moreover, whereas healthy subjects (n = 31) were found to be able to discriminate subtle differences in the kinematics of observed limb movements of others, patients suffering from spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6; n = 21) were severely impaired in performing such tasks. Our data suggest that the human cerebellum is actively involved in perceiving the kinematics of the hand actions of others and that SCA6 patients’ deficits include a difficulty in perceiving the actions of other individuals. This finding alerts us to the fact that cerebellar disorders can alter social cognition.

Does TMS Disruption of the Left Primary Motor Cortex Affect Verb Retrieval Following Exposure to Pantomimed Gestures?

Previous research suggests that meaning-laden gestures, even when produced in the absence of language (i.e., pantomimed gestures), influence lexical retrieval. Yet, little is known about the neural mechanisms that underlie this process. Based on embodied cognition theories, many studies have demonstrated motor cortex involvement in the representation of action verbs and in the understanding of actions. The present study aimed to investigate whether the motor system plays a critical role in the behavioral influence of pantomimed gestures on action naming. Continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) was applied over the hand area of the left primary motor cortex and to a control site (occipital cortex). An action-picture naming task followed cTBS. In the naming task, participants named action pictures that were preceded by videos of congruent pantomimed gestures, unrelated pantomimed gestures or a control video with no movement (as a neutral, non-gestural condition). In addition to behavioral measures of performance, cTBS-induced changes in corticospinal activity were assessed. We replicated previous finding that exposure to congruent pantomimed gestures facilitates word production, compared to unrelated or neutral primes. However, we found no evidence that the left primary motor area is crucially involved in the mechanism underlying behavioral facilitation effects of gesture on verb production. Although, at the group level, cTBS induced motor cortex suppression, at the individual level we found remarkable variability of cTBS effects on the motor cortex. We found cTBS induction of both inhibition of corticospinal activity (with slower behavioral of responses) and enhancement (with faster behavioral responses). Our findings cast doubt on assumptions that the motor cortex is causally involved in the impact of gestures on action-word processing. Our results also highlight the importance of careful consideration of interindividual variability for the interpretation of cTBS effects.

Where and how our brain represents the temporal structure of observed action

Reacting faster to the behaviour of others provides evolutionary advantages. Reacting to unpredictable events takes hundreds of milliseconds. Understanding where and how the brain represents what actions are likely to follow one another is, therefore, important. Everyday actions occur in predictable sequences, yet neuroscientists focus on how brains respond to unexpected, individual motor acts. Using fMRI, we show the brain encodes sequence-related information in the motor system. Using EEG, we show visual responses are faster and smaller for predictable sequences. We hope this paradigm encourages the field to shift its focus from single acts to motor sequences. It sheds light on how we adapt to the actions of others and suggests that the motor system may implement perceptual predictive coding.

Embodied Decision-Making Style: Below and Beyond Cognition

There is growing recognition of the essential role of sensorimotor processes as not just a supporter of the cognitive aspects of decision making, but rather as a foundation for all the coordinated physical and mental activities that go into how we make decisions. We illuminate concepts and methods for examining embodied decision making through the lens of Movement Pattern Analysis (MPA). MPA is as a prime example of a conceptually rooted observational methodology for deciphering embodied decision making and for decoding how people differ as decision makers with respect to cognitive motivational priorities. The historical origins of MPA that predated the formalized recognition of embodied cognition are presented, along with an overview of both the theoretical model and methodology. Advances in research on two psychometric benchmarks of observational research-inter-rater reliability and predictive validity-are highlighted as an empirical platform for the strong promise of MPA as a tool for understanding individual differences in embodied decision-making style. Future directions for research are considered-specifically with respect to the potential for utilizing automated coding, and the need for collaborative neuroscience research efforts-which would support further understanding of how decoding movement patterning captures human motivation at the level of sensory, motoric, cognitive and action integration which drives how people function as decision makers.