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Quintana DS, Glaser BD, Kang H, Kildal ESM, Audunsdottir K, Sartorius AM, Barth C. The interplay of oxytocin and sex hormones. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105765. [PMID: 38885888 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The neuropeptide oxytocin has historically been associated with reproduction and maternal behavior. However, more recent research has uncovered that oxytocin has a much wider range of roles in physiology and behavior. Despite the excitement surrounding potential therapeutical applications of intranasally administered oxytocin, the results of these intervention studies have been inconsistent. Various reasons for these mixed results have been proposed, which tend to focus on methodological issues, such as study design. While methodological issues are certainly important, emerging evidence suggests that the interaction between oxytocin and sex hormones may also account for these varied findings. To better understand the purpose and function of the interaction of oxytocin with sex hormones, with a focus on estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone, we conducted a comprehensive thematic review via four perspectives: evolutionary, developmental, mechanistic, and survival. Altogether, this synergistic approach highlights the critical function of sex hormone activity for accomplishing the diverse roles of oxytocin via the modulation of oxytocin release and oxytocin receptor activity, which is also likely to contribute to the heterogeneity of outcomes after oxytocin administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Quintana
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; NevSom, Department of Rare Disorders, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Bernt D Glaser
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Heemin Kang
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Emilie S M Kildal
- KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatry, Lovisenberg Diakonale Sykehus, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristin Audunsdottir
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Claudia Barth
- Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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2
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Kingsbury MA. The intertwining of oxytocin's effects on social affiliation and inflammation. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2024; 19:100239. [PMID: 38784104 PMCID: PMC11112266 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2024.100239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
•Oxytocin is an ancient adaptive hormone that promotes social affiliation to maximize fitness and longevity.•Oxytocin is a multifaceted hormone that regulates stress responses at all levels of cellular organization within individuals.•Oxytocin's dual actions on sociability and inflammation highlight its powerful capacity as a modulator of human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcy A. Kingsbury
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
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3
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Horn AJ, Cole S, Nazarloo HP, Nazarloo P, Davis JM, Carrier D, Bryan C, Carter CS. Severe PTSD is marked by reduced oxytocin and elevated vasopressin. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2024; 19:100236. [PMID: 38764609 PMCID: PMC11101686 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2024.100236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuroendocrine analyses of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have generally focused on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis alterations. In the present analyses, we examine two additional neuroendocrine factors that have been previously implicated in biological stress responses: oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP). Here we examined basal neuropeptide status in military veterans clinically diagnosed with PTSD (n = 29) and in two non-traumatized comparison groups with previous stress exposure (n = 11 SWAT trainees and n = 21 ultramarathon runners). PTSD patients showed low levels of plasma OT and high levels of AVP. The ratio of AVP/OT robustly related to PTSD status, and emerged as a statistically plausible mediator of relationships between the number of personal traumatic experiences and subsequent PTSD symptom burden. Over the course of behavioral therapy for PTSD, measures of OT showed a significant but modest normalization. Plasma cortisol levels were not statistically different among the three groups. This study suggests that AVP/OT ratios may represent a neuroendocrine predictor of severe PTSD, as well as a potential treatment response biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steve Cole
- UCLA School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | | | - John M. Davis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - David Carrier
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Craig Bryan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - C. Sue Carter
- Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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4
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Ahmed M, Mahmud A, Mughal S, Shah HH. Dysphoric milk ejection reflex - call for future trials. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2024; 310:627-630. [PMID: 38676742 DOI: 10.1007/s00404-024-07503-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
Dysphoric milk ejection reflex is a condition that causes an abrupt emotional downturn during the initial moments of milk ejection in a breastfeeding mother. Depression, anxiety, hopelessness, anger, irritability, homesickness, and stomach hollowness are all possible symptoms. The exact cause of D-MER remains unknown. However, it is proposed that it is caused by an alteration in oxytocin signaling response where secretion of oxytocin upregulates the stress response instead of its downregulation. Activation of the defensive response of the mother by oxytocin during breastfeeding, disruption in dopamine levels, and activation of vasopressin-regulated pathways are other probable causes. Due to a lack of awareness, this phenomenon is easily misdiagnosed as postpartum depression and aversion by many healthcare professionals. Its prevalence in various populations of the world remains unknown due to the lack of research studies conducted in these populations. While no medically approved therapeutic strategy is available, supportive techniques such as maintaining a healthy diet, mental distraction, relaxation methods, and increasing skin-to-skin contact can help alleviate dysphoria during breastfeeding. However, due to a lack of D-MER research, specific challenges exist regarding early withdrawal from breastfeeding and women's help-seeking attitude toward perinatal mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marium Ahmed
- Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan.
| | - Amina Mahmud
- Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Sanila Mughal
- Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Hussain Haider Shah
- Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
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Muhsin SM, Chin AHB, Padela AI. An Ethico-Legal Analysis of Artificial Womb Technology and Extracorporeal Gestation Based on Islamic Legal Maxims. New Bioeth 2024; 30:34-46. [PMID: 37874040 DOI: 10.1080/20502877.2023.2269638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Artificial womb technology for extracorporeal gestation of human offspring (ectogenesis or ectogestation) has profound ethical, sociological and religious implications for Muslim communities. In this article we examine the usage of the technology through the lens of Islamic ethico-legal frameworks specifically the legal maxims (al-Qawaid al-Fiqhiyyah) and higher objectives of Islamic law (Maqaṣid al-Shariah). Our analysis suggests that its application may be contingently permissible (halal) in situations of dire need such as sustaining life and development of extremely premature newborns, for advancing fetal medicine and avoiding maternal co-morbidities during fetal treatment, and for enabling motherhood for women without functional wombs, or who face grave medical risks in pregnancy. However, its application may be proscribed (haram) for enabling healthy women to avoid pregnancy and childbirth, or to achieve parenthood equity. Specification of these views to particular policy, legal contexts and Fatwa will require multidisciplinary Shariah-based bioethical deliberations between jurists, policymakers, and scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayyed Mohamed Muhsin
- Department of Fiqh and Uṣūl al-Fiqh, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, Gombak, Malaysia
| | | | - Aasim Ilyas Padela
- Department of Emergency Medicine and the Institute for Health & Equity, The Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
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Uvnäs-Moberg K. The physiology and pharmacology of oxytocin in labor and in the peripartum period. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2024; 230:S740-S758. [PMID: 38462255 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2023.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Oxytocin is a reproductive hormone implicated in the process of parturition and widely used during labor. Oxytocin is produced within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary lobe into the circulation. Oxytocin is released in pulses with increasing frequency and amplitude in the first and second stages of labor, with a few pulses released in the third stage of labor. During labor, the fetus exerts pressure on the cervix of the uterus, which activates a feedforward reflex-the Ferguson reflex-which releases oxytocin. When myometrial contractions activate sympathetic nerves, it decreases oxytocin release. When oxytocin binds to specific myometrial oxytocin receptors, it induces myometrial contractions. High levels of circulating estrogen at term make the receptors more sensitive. In addition, oxytocin stimulates prostaglandin synthesis and release in the decidua and chorioamniotic membranes by activating a specific type of oxytocin receptor. Prostaglandins contribute to cervical ripening and uterine contractility in labor. The oxytocin system in the brain has been implicated in decreasing maternal levels of fear, pain, and stress, and oxytocin release and function during labor are stimulated by a social support. Moreover, studies suggest, but have not yet proven, that labor may be associated with long-term, behavioral and physiological adaptations in the mother and infant, possibly involving epigenetic modulation of oxytocin production and release and the oxytocin receptor. In addition, infusions of synthetic oxytocin are used to induce and augment labor. Oxytocin may be administered according to different dose regimens at increasing rates from 1 to 3 mIU/min to a maximal rate of 36 mIU/min at 15- to 40-minute intervals. The total amount of synthetic oxytocin given during labor can be 5 to 10 IU, but lower and higher amounts of oxytocin may also be given. High-dose infusions of oxytocin may shorten the duration of labor by up to 2 hours compared with no infusion of oxytocin; however, it does not lower the frequency of cesarean delivery. When synthetic oxytocin is administered, the plasma concentration of oxytocin increases in a dose-dependent way: at infusion rates of 20 to 30 mIU/min, plasma oxytocin concentration increases approximately 2- to 3-fold above the basal level. Synthetic oxytocin administered at recommended dose levels is not likely to cross the placenta or maternal blood-brain barrier. Synthetic oxytocin should be administered with caution as high levels may induce tachystole and uterine overstimulation, with potentially negative consequences for the fetus and possibly the mother. Of note, 5 to 10 IU of synthetic oxytocin is often routinely given as an intravenous or intramuscular bolus administration after delivery to induce uterine contractility, which, in turn, induces uterine separation of the placenta and prevents postpartum hemorrhage. Furthermore, it promotes the expulsion of the placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Uvnäs-Moberg
- Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agriculture, Uppsala, Sweden.
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7
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Weinstein SR, Erickson EN, Molina R, Bell AF. Maternal outcomes related to Genetic and epigenetic Variation in the oxytocin system: A scoping review. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2023; 16:100209. [PMID: 38108031 PMCID: PMC10724832 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2023.100209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose In this scoping review, we synthesize the literature on oxytocin and oxytocin receptor genetic and epigenetic variation in relationship to breastfeeding, maternal caregiving behavior, and maternal mental health. Methods A literature search was conducted in early 2022, and updated in 2023, utilizing the PRISMA scoping review reporting method, using the following MeSH headings and key terms: oxytocin, oxytocin receptor, genetics, epigenetics, methylation, pregnancy, postnatal, breastfeeding, lactation, mother-infant relations and perinatal outcomes. The search was conducted using PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, Google Scholar, SCOPUS, and the Cochrane Library. Inclusion criteria included: human literature which was peer reviewed and found in primary sources, printed in the English language. In addition, the study must have reported genetic/epigenetic data in either the oxytocin or oxytocin receptor gene (maternal or infant up to 12 months after birth) in relation to a breastfeeding, maternal caregiving behavior or a maternal mental health outcome. There was no date limitation. Four authors reviewed studies for eligibility. Data was extracted using a structured data extraction form. Results A total of 23 studies met inclusion criteria for this review (breastfeeding n = 4, maternal caregiving behavior n = 7, and maternal mental health n = 16). Seventeen papers reported on oxytocin or oxytocin receptor genotype and nine reported epigenetic associations (namely DNA methylation). These totals are greater than 23, as studies reported on multiple outcomes. One paper assessed the interaction between genotype and methylation. While a number of genotype variations were reported, the single nucleotide polymorphism rs53576 on the oxytocin receptor gene was the most studied. Overall, variation in this polymorphism was related to postnatal depression symptoms. Among numerous epigenetic markers, site -934 was the most studied methylation site, and methylation status was associated with maternal depression and maternal caregiving behavior outcomes. Results suggest that early life experiences impact adult maternal caregiving behaviors and mental health outcomes, and vary based on genetic vulnerability. Breastfeeding outcomes were minimally studied. Conclusion This scoping review found that genetic and epigenetic variation at the oxytocin and oxytocin receptor genes were associated with maternal caregiving behavior and mental health, likely through complex gene and environment interactions. The findings suggest that maternal early life experiences and stress impact later caregiving behaviors and mental health in the postnatal period. The findings highlight potential pathways by which environment, experiences, and genes interact to impact maternal caregiving behavior and maternal mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rodin Molina
- Frontier Nursing University, Hyden, KY, USA
- BabyMoon Inn Birth Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Aleeca F. Bell
- University of Arizona College of Nursing, Tucson, AZ, USA
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8
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Neumann ID. Monitoring oxytocin signaling in the brain: More than a love story. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2023; 16:100206. [PMID: 38108033 PMCID: PMC10724740 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2023.100206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
More than any other neuropeptide, oxytocin (OXT) is attracting the attention of neurobiologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, evolutionary biologists and even economists. It is often called a "love hormone" due to its many prosocial functions described in vertebrates including mammals and humans, especially its ability to support "bonding behaviour". Oxytocin plays an important role in female reproduction, as it promotes labour during parturition, enables milk ejection in lactation and is essential for related reproductive behaviours. Therefore, it particularly attracts the interest of many female researchers. In this short narrative review I was invited to provide a personal overview on my scientific journey closely linked to my research on the brain OXT system and the adventures associated with starting my research career behind the Iron Curtain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga D. Neumann
- Department of Behavioural and Molecular Neurobiology, Regensburg Centre of Neurosciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Williams JS, Fattori MR, Honeyborne IR, Ritz SA. Considering hormones as sex- and gender-related factors in biomedical research: Challenging false dichotomies and embracing complexity. Horm Behav 2023; 156:105442. [PMID: 37913648 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
The inclusion of sex and gender considerations in biomedicine has been increasing in light of calls from research and funding agencies, governmental bodies, and advocacy groups to direct research attention to these issues. Although the inclusion of both female and male participants is often an important element, overreliance on a female-male binary tends to oversimplify the interactions between sex- and gender-related factors and health, and runs a risk of being influenced by cultural stereotypes about sex and gender. When biomedical researchers are examining how hormones associated with gender and sex may influence pathways of interest, it is of crucial importance to approach this work with a critical lens on the rhetoric used, and in ways that acknowledge the complexity of hormone physiology. Here, we document the ways in which discourses around sex, gender and hormones shape our scientific thinking and practice in biomedical research, and review how the existing scientific knowledge about hormones reflects a complex and dynamic reality that is often not reflected outside of specialist niches of hormone biology. Where biomedical scientists take up sex- and gender-associated hormones as a way of addressing sex and gender considerations, it is valuable for us to bring a critical lens to the rhetoric and discourses used, to employ a sex contextualist approach in designing experimentation, and be rigorous and reflexive about the approaches used in analysis and interpretation of data. These strategies will allow us to design experimentation that goes beyond binaries, and grapples more directly with the material intricacies of sex, gender, and hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michelle R Fattori
- Health Sciences Education Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Isabella R Honeyborne
- Bachelor of Health Sciences (Honours) Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stacey A Ritz
- Department of Pathology & Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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10
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Bode A. Romantic love evolved by co-opting mother-infant bonding. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1176067. [PMID: 37915523 PMCID: PMC10616966 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
For 25 years, the predominant evolutionary theory of romantic love has been Fisher's theory of independent emotion systems. That theory suggests that sex drive, romantic attraction (romantic love), and attachment are associated with distinct neurobiological and endocrinological systems which evolved independently of each other. Psychological and neurobiological evidence, however, suggest that a competing theory requires attention. A theory of co-opting mother-infant bonding sometime in the recent evolutionary history of humans may partially account for the evolution of romantic love. I present a case for this theory and a new approach to the science of romantic love drawing on human psychological, neurobiological, and (neuro)endocrinological studies as well as animal studies. The hope is that this theoretical review, along with other publications, will generate debate in the literature about the merits of the theory of co-opting mother-infant bonding and a new evolutionary approach to the science of romantic love.
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Carter CS. Close encounters with oxytocin. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2023; 15:100189. [PMID: 37577297 PMCID: PMC10422098 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2023.100189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this narrative review is to use a personal perspective to describe unanticipated and pivotal findings that drew the author into the study oxytocin. Oxytocin was originally described as a "female reproductive hormone." However, supporting reproduction is only one of a myriad of functions now attributed to oxytocin. Oxytocin promotes survival and resilience in both sexes and across the lifespan, especially in the context of stress or trauma and helps to explain the health benefits of relationships. Oxytocin works in the context of individual histories and in conjunction with other molecules, as well as the autonomic nervous system and immune factors. The chemical properties of oxytocin make it biologically active, but difficult to measure. As a deeper understanding of the biology of oxytocin is emerging, we may use knowledge of the properties of oxytocin to uncover adaptive strategies that protect and heal in the face of stress and adversity in both males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Sue Carter
- Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlotteville, VA, USA
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12
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Marchand WR. Potential Mechanisms of Action and Outcomes of Equine-Assisted Services for Veterans with a History of Trauma: A Narrative Review of the Literature. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6377. [PMID: 37510609 PMCID: PMC10379349 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20146377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Equine-assisted services (EASs) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing the desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as by contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein, as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Marchand
- VISN 19 Whole Health Flagship Site, VA Salt Lake City Health Care System, 500 Foothill, Salt Lake City, UT 84148, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Utah, 501 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
- Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, 4815 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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Petrocelli G, Abruzzo PM, Pampanella L, Tassinari R, Marini S, Zamagni E, Ventura C, Facchin F, Canaider S. Oxytocin Modulates Osteogenic Commitment in Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10813. [PMID: 37445991 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) are commonly harvested in minimally invasive contexts with few ethical concerns, and exhibit self-renewal, multi-lineage differentiation, and trophic signaling that make them attractive candidates for cell therapy approaches. The identification of natural molecules that can modulate their biological properties is a challenge for many researchers. Oxytocin (OXT) is a neurohypophyseal hormone that plays a pivotal role in the regulation of mammalian behavior, and is involved in health and well-being processes. Here, we investigated the role of OXT on hASC proliferation, migratory ability, senescence, and autophagy after a treatment of 72 h; OXT did not affect hASC proliferation and migratory ability. Moreover, we observed an increase in SA-β-galactosidase activity, probably related to the promotion of the autophagic process. In addition, the effects of OXT were evaluated on the hASC differentiation ability; OXT promoted osteogenic differentiation in a dose-dependent manner, as demonstrated by Alizarin red staining and gene/protein expression analysis, while it did not affect or reduce adipogenic differentiation. We also observed an increase in the expression of autophagy marker genes at the beginning of the osteogenic process in OXT-treated hASCs, leading us to hypothesize that OXT could promote osteogenesis in hASCs by modulating the autophagic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovannamaria Petrocelli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Provvidenza Maria Abruzzo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Luca Pampanella
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Serena Marini
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Elena Zamagni
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Istituto di Ematologia "Seràgnoli", 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Carlo Ventura
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- National Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Stem Cell Bioengineering of the National Institute of Biostructures and Biosystems (NIBB) c/o Eldor Lab, Via Corticella 183, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Facchin
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Silvia Canaider
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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Tarsha MS, Narvaez D. The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1113944. [PMID: 37425179 PMCID: PMC10323226 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1113944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Prosociality, orientation to attuned, empathic relationships, is built from the ground up, through supportive care in early life that fosters healthy neurobiological structures that shape behavior. Numerous social and environmental factors within early life have been identified as critical variables influencing child physiological and psychological outcomes indicating a growing need to synthesize which factors are the most influential. To address this gap, we examined the influence of early life experiences according to the evolved developmental niche or evolved nest and its influence on child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes, specifically, the oxytocinergic system and prosociality, respectively. To-date, this is the first review to utilize the evolved nest framework as an investigatory lens to probe connections between early life experience and child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes. The evolved nest is comprised of characteristics over 30 million years old and is organized to meet a child's basic needs as they mature. Converging evidence indicates that humanity's evolved nest meets the needs of a rapidly developing brain, optimizing normal development. The evolved nest for young children includes soothing perinatal experiences, breastfeeding, positive touch, responsive care, multiple allomothers, self-directed play, social embeddedness, and nature immersion. We examined what is known about the effects of each evolved nest component on oxytocinergic functioning, a critical neurobiological building block for pro-sociomorality. We also examined the effects of the evolved nest on prosociality generally. We reviewed empirical studies from human and animal research, meta-analyses and theoretical articles. The review suggests that evolved nest components influence oxytocinergic functioning in parents and children and help form the foundations for prosociality. Future research and policy should consider the importance of the first years of life in programming the neuroendocrine system that undergirds wellbeing and prosociality. Complex, interaction effects among evolved nest components as well as among physiological and sociomoral processes need to be studied. The most sensible framework for examining what builds and enhances prosociality may be the millions-year-old evolved nest.
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Feldman R. The neurobiology of hatred: Tools of Dialogue© intervention for youth reared amidst intractable conflict impacts brain, behaviour, and peacebuilding attitudes. Acta Paediatr 2023; 112:603-616. [PMID: 36655828 DOI: 10.1111/apa.16676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Myths, drama, and sacred texts have warned against the fragile nature of human love; the closer the affiliative bond, the quicker it can turn into hatred, suggesting similarities in the neurobiological underpinnings of love and hatred. Here, I offer a theoretical account on the neurobiology of hatred based on our model on the biology of human attachments and its three foundations; the oxytocin system, the "affiliative brain", comprising the neural network sustaining attachment, and biobehavioural synchrony, the process by which humans create a coupled biology through coordinated action. These systems mature in mammals in the context of the mother-infant bond and then transfer to support life within social groups. During this transition, they partition to support affiliation and solidarity to one's group and fear and hatred towards out-group based on minor variations in social behaviour. I present the Tools of Dialogue© intervention for outgroup members based on social synchrony. Applied to Israeli and Palestinian youth and implementing RCT, we measured social behaviour, attitudes, hormones, and social brain response before and after the 8-session intervention. Youth receiving the intervention increased reciprocity and reduced hostile behaviour towards outgroup, attenuated the neural marker of prejudice and increased neural empathic response, reduced cortisol and elevated oxytocin, and adapted attitudes of compromise. These neural changes predicted peacebuilding support 7 years later, when young adults can engage in civil responsibilities. Our intervention, the first to show long-term effects of inter-group intervention on brain and behaviour, demonstrates how social synchrony can tilt the neurobiology of hatred towards the pole of affiliation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Feldman
- Center of Developmental Social Neuroscience, Reichman University, Herzlia, Israel
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Marazziti D, Carter CS, Carmassi C, Della Vecchia A, Mucci F, Pagni G, Carbone MG, Baroni S, Giannaccini G, Palego L, Dell’Osso L. Sex matters: The impact of oxytocin on healthy conditions and psychiatric disorders. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2022; 13:100165. [PMID: 36590869 PMCID: PMC9800179 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2022.100165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxytocin (OT) is involved in the regulation of physiological processes and emotional states, with increasing evidence for its beneficial actions being mediated by the autonomic and immune systems. Growing evidence suggests that OT plays a role in the pathophysiology of different psychiatric disorders. Given the limited information in humans the aim of this study was to retrospectively explore plasma OT levels in psychiatric patients, particularly focusing on sex-related differences, as compared with healthy controls. The patients studied here were divided into three groups diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or major depressive disorder (MDD). Plasma OT levels were significantly different between healthy men and women, with the latter showing higher values, while none of the three psychiatric groups showed sex-related differences in the parameters measured here. The intergroup analyses showed that the OT levels were significantly higher in OCD, lower in PTSD and even more reduced in MDD patients than in healthy subjects. These differences were also confirmed when gender was considered, with the exception of PTSD men, in whom OT levels were similar to those of healthy men. The present results indicated that OT levels were higher amongst healthy women than men, while a sex difference was less apparent or reversed in psychiatric patients. Reductions in sex differences in psychopathologies may be related to differential vulnerabilities in processes associated with basic adaptive and social functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Marazziti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Italy,Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences – UniCamillus, Rome, Italy,Corresponding author. Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Via Roma 57, 56100, Pisa, Italy.
| | - C. Sue Carter
- Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA,Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Claudia Carmassi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Federico Mucci
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, Italy,Department of Psychiatry, North-Western Tuscany Region NHS Local Health Unit, Lucca Zone, Lucca, Italy
| | - Giovanni Pagni
- Department of Psychiatry, North-Western Tuscany Region NHS Local Health Unit, Lunigiana Zone, Aulla, Italy
| | - Manuel G. Carbone
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Division of Psychiatry, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Stefano Baroni
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Liliana Dell’Osso
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Italy
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Carter CS. Sex, love and oxytocin: Two metaphors and a molecule. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 143:104948. [PMID: 36347382 PMCID: PMC9759207 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Dozens of studies, most conducted in the last four decades, have implicated oxytocin, as well as vasopressin and their receptors, in processes that mediate selective sociality and the consequences of early experience. Oxytocin is critical for the capacity to experience emotional safety and healthy sexuality. Oxytocin also plays a central role in almost every aspect of physical and mental health, including the coordination of sociality and loving relationships with physiological reactions to challenges across the lifespan. Species, including prairie voles, that share with humans the capacity for selective social bonds have been a particularly rich source of insights into the behavioral importance of peptides. The purpose of this historical review is to describe the discovery of a central role for oxytocin in behavioral interactions associated with love, and in the capacity to use sociality to anticipate and cope with challenges across the lifespan - a process that here is called "sociostasis."
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sue Carter
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA; Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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18
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Carter CS, Kingsbury MA. Oxytocin and oxygen: the evolution of a solution to the ‘stress of life’. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210054. [PMID: 35856299 PMCID: PMC9272143 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxytocin (OT) and the OT receptor occupy essential roles in our current understanding of mammalian evolution, survival, sociality and reproduction. This narrative review examines the hypothesis that many functions attributed to OT can be traced back to conditions on early Earth, including challenges associated with managing life in the presence of oxygen and other basic elements, including sulfur. OT regulates oxidative stress and inflammation especially through effects on the mitochondria. A related nonapeptide, vasopressin, as well as molecules in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, including the corticotropin-releasing hormone family of molecules, have a broad set of functions that interact with OT. Interactions among these molecules have roles in the causes and consequence of social behaviour and the management of threat, fear and stress. Here, we discuss emerging evidence suggesting that unique properties of the OT system allowed vertebrates, and especially mammals, to manage over-reactivity to the ‘side effects’ of oxygen, including inflammation, oxidation and free radicals, while also supporting high levels of sociality and a perception of safety. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Interplays between oxytocin and other neuromodulators in shaping complex social behaviours’.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Sue Carter
- Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Marcy A. Kingsbury
- Lurie Center for Autism, Mass General Hospital for Children, Harvard University Medical School, Charlestown, Boston, MA 02129, USA
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Carter CS. Love and fear: A special issue. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2022; 11:100151. [PMID: 35967926 PMCID: PMC9363639 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2022.100151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Love and fear were forged by the same fundamental evolutionary processes that permitted life on Earth. Both love and fear are deeply interwoven with the adaptive management of stress and disease. Love and fear share common roots and both can play a role in reproduction, survival, perceived safety and wellbeing. This special issue of Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology focuses specifically on the causes and consequences of love from the interactive perspectives of evolution, neurobiology and culture. This introduction presents the reasons for a special issue on love and fear. It outlines what the different contributions to the special issue bring to the topic. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of studies in this field.
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Higashida H, Furuhara K, Lopatina O, Gerasimenko M, Hori O, Hattori T, Hayashi Y, Cherepanov SM, Shabalova AA, Salmina AB, Minami K, Yuhi T, Tsuji C, Fu P, Liu Z, Luo S, Zhang A, Yokoyama S, Shuto S, Watanabe M, Fujiwara K, Munesue SI, Harashima A, Yamamoto Y. Oxytocin Dynamics in the Body and Brain Regulated by the Receptor for Advanced Glycation End-Products, CD38, CD157, and Nicotinamide Riboside. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:858070. [PMID: 35873827 PMCID: PMC9301327 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.858070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigating the neurocircuit and synaptic sites of action of oxytocin (OT) in the brain is critical to the role of OT in social memory and behavior. To the same degree, it is important to understand how OT is transported to the brain from the peripheral circulation. To date, of these, many studies provide evidence that CD38, CD157, and receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) act as regulators of OT concentrations in the brain and blood. It has been shown that RAGE facilitates the uptake of OT in mother’s milk from the digestive tract to the cell surface of intestinal epithelial cells to the body fluid and subsequently into circulation in male mice. RAGE has been shown to recruit circulatory OT into the brain from blood at the endothelial cell surface of neurovascular units. Therefore, it can be said that extracellular OT concentrations in the brain (hypothalamus) could be determined by the transport of OT by RAGE from the circulation and release of OT from oxytocinergic neurons by CD38 and CD157 in mice. In addition, it has recently been found that gavage application of a precursor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide riboside, for 12 days can increase brain OT in mice. Here, we review the evaluation of the new concept that RAGE is involved in the regulation of OT dynamics at the interface between the brain, blood, and intestine in the living body, mainly by summarizing our recent results due to the limited number of publications on related topics. And we also review other possible routes of OT recruitment to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruhiro Higashida
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
- Laboratory of Social Brain Study, Research Institute of Molecular Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Krasnoyarsk State Medical University named after Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
- *Correspondence: Haruhiro Higashida,
| | - Kazumi Furuhara
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Olga Lopatina
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
- Laboratory of Social Brain Study, Research Institute of Molecular Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Krasnoyarsk State Medical University named after Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
| | - Maria Gerasimenko
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Osamu Hori
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Hattori
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Hayashi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Kanazawa Medical University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Stanislav M. Cherepanov
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Anna A. Shabalova
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Alla B. Salmina
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
- Laboratory of Social Brain Study, Research Institute of Molecular Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Krasnoyarsk State Medical University named after Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
| | - Kana Minami
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Teruko Yuhi
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Chiharu Tsuji
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - PinYue Fu
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Zhongyu Liu
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Shuxin Luo
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Anpei Zhang
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Shigeru Yokoyama
- Department of Basic Research on Social Recognition and Memory, Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Satoshi Shuto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Mizuki Watanabe
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Koichi Fujiwara
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Sei-ichi Munesue
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Vascular Biology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Ai Harashima
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Vascular Biology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Yamamoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Vascular Biology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
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Porges SW. Polyvagal Theory: A Science of Safety. Front Integr Neurosci 2022; 16:871227. [PMID: 35645742 PMCID: PMC9131189 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2022.871227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Contemporary strategies for health and wellbeing fail our biological needs by not acknowledging that feelings of safety emerge from internal physiological states regulated by the autonomic nervous system. The study of feelings of safety has been an elusive construct that has historically been dependent upon subjectivity. Acknowledging that feelings of safety have a measurable underlying neurophysiological substrate would shift investigations of feelings of safety from a subjective to an objective science. Polyvagal Theory provides an innovative scientific perspective to study feelings of safety that incorporates an understanding of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. This perspective identifies neural circuits that downregulate neural regulation of threat reactions and functionally neutralize defensive strategies via neural circuits communicating cues of safety that enable feelings of safety to support interpersonal accessibility and homeostatic functions. Basically, when humans feel safe, their nervous systems support the homeostatic functions of health, growth, and restoration, while they simultaneously become accessible to others without feeling or expressing threat and vulnerability. Feelings of safety reflect a core fundamental process that has enabled humans to survive through the opportunistic features of trusting social engagements that have co-regulatory capacities to mitigate metabolically costly defense reactions. Through the study of neural development and phylogeny, we can extract foundational principles and their underlying mechanisms through which the autonomic nervous system leads to feelings of safety and opportunities to co-regulate. Several principles highlight the validity of a science of safety that when implemented in societal institutions, ranging from healthcare to education, would enhance health, sociality, and lead to greater productivity, creativity, and a sense of wellbeing. By respecting our need to feel safe as a biological imperative linked to survival, we respect our phylogenetic heritage and elevate sociality as a neuromodulator that functionally provides the scientific validation for a societal focus on promoting opportunities to experience feelings of safety and co-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W. Porges
- Traumatic Stress Research Consortium, Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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