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Rogers K, Gold JI, Ding L. The subthalamic nucleus contributes causally to perceptual decision-making in monkeys. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.09.588715. [PMID: 38645039 PMCID: PMC11030388 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.09.588715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) plays critical roles in the motor and cognitive function of the basal ganglia (BG), but the exact nature of these roles is not fully understood, especially in the context of decision-making based on uncertain evidence. Guided by theoretical predictions of specific STN contributions, we used single-unit recording and electrical microstimulation in the STN of healthy monkeys to assess its causal, computational roles in visual-saccadic decisions based on noisy evidence. The recordings identified subpopulations of STN neurons with distinct task-related activity patterns that related to different theoretically predicted functions. Microstimulation caused changes in behavioral choices and response times that reflected multiple contributions to an "accumulate-to-bound"-like decision process, including modulation of decision bounds and evidence accumulation, and to non-perceptual processes. These results provide new insights into the multiple ways that the STN can support higher brain function.
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2
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Yang Q. Unraveling the enigmatic role of the subthalamic nucleus. eLife 2024; 13:e100598. [PMID: 38984395 PMCID: PMC11236414 DOI: 10.7554/elife.100598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Subpopulations of neurons in the subthalamic nucleus have distinct activity patterns that relate to the three hypotheses of the Drift Diffusion Model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianli Yang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Brain Cognition and Brain-inspired Intelligence Technology, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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3
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Herz DM. Neuroscience: Therapy modulates decision-making in Parkinson's disease. Curr Biol 2024; 34:R148-R150. [PMID: 38412825 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
There is mounting evidence that decision-making can be affected by treatment in Parkinson's disease. A new study shows that dopamine and deep brain stimulation, two mainstay treatments of Parkinson's, differently affect how patients make decisions weighing rewards against effort costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian M Herz
- Movement Disorders and Neurostimulation, Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
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4
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Pagnier GJ, Asaad WF, Frank MJ. Double dissociation of dopamine and subthalamic nucleus stimulation on effortful cost/benefit decision making. Curr Biol 2024; 34:655-660.e3. [PMID: 38183986 PMCID: PMC10872531 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) and dopaminergic therapy (DA) are common interventions for Parkinson's disease (PD). Both treatments typically improve patient outcomes, and both can have adverse side effects on decision making (e.g., impulsivity).1,2 Nevertheless, they are thought to act via different mechanisms within basal ganglia circuits.3 Here, we developed and formally evaluated their dissociable predictions within a single cost/benefit effort-based decision-making task. In the same patients, we manipulated DA medication status and subthalamic nucleus (STN) DBS status within and across sessions. Using a series of descriptive and computational modeling analyses of participant choices and their dynamics, we confirm a double dissociation: DA medication asymmetrically altered participants' sensitivities to benefits vs. effort costs of alternative choices (boosting the sensitivity to benefits while simultaneously lowering sensitivity to costs); whereas STN DBS lowered the decision threshold of such choices. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show, using a common modeling framework, a dissociation of DA and DBS within the same participants. As such, this work offers a comprehensive account for how different mechanisms impact decision making, and how impulsive behavior (present in DA-treated patients with PD and DBS patients) may emerge from separate physiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume J Pagnier
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Box GL-N, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, 164 Angell Street, 4(th) Floor, Providence, RI 02906, USA.
| | - Wael F Asaad
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Box GL-N, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Norman Prince Neurosciences Institute, APC 633, Department of Neurosurgery, Rhode Island Hospital, 593 Eddy Street, Providence, RI 02903; Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, 164 Angell Street, 4(th) Floor, Providence, RI 02906, USA
| | - Michael J Frank
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Box GL-N, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Metcalf Research Building, 190 Thayer St, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, 164 Angell Street, 4(th) Floor, Providence, RI 02906, USA
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5
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Lee DH, Chung CK, Kim JS, Ryun S. Unraveling tactile categorization and decision-making in the subregions of supramarginal gyrus via direct cortical stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol 2024; 158:16-26. [PMID: 38134532 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2023.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate the potential of direct cortical stimulation (DCS) to modulate tactile categorization and decision-making, as well as to identify the specific locations where these cognitive functions occur. METHODS We analyzed behavioral changes in three epilepsy patients with implanted electrodes using electrocorticography (ECoG) and a vibrotactile discrimination task. DCS was applied to investigate its impact on tactile categorization and decision-making processes. We determined the precise location of the electrodes where each cognitive function was modulated. RESULTS This functional discrimination was related with gamma band activity from ECoG. DCS selectively affected either tactile categorization or decision-making processes. Tactile categorization was modulated by stimulating the rostral part of the supramarginal gyrus, while decision-making was modulated by stimulating the caudal part. CONCLUSIONS DCS can enhance cognitive processes and map brain regions responsible for tactile categorization and decision-making within the supramarginal gyrus. This study also demonstrates that DCS and the gamma activity of ECoG can concordantly identify the detailed brain mapping in a tactile process compared to other functional neuroimaging. SIGNIFICANCE The combination of DCS and ECoG gamma activity provides a more nuanced and detailed understanding of brain function than traditional neuroimaging techniques alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Hyeok Lee
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Chun Kee Chung
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Neuroscience Research Institute, Medical Research Center, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea.
| | - June Sic Kim
- The Research Institute of Basic Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Seokyun Ryun
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Medical Research Center, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
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6
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Ding L. Contributions of the Basal Ganglia to Visual Perceptual Decisions. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2023; 9:385-407. [PMID: 37713277 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-111022-123804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
The basal ganglia (BG) make up a prominent nexus between visual and motor-related brain regions. In contrast to the BG's well-established roles in movement control and value-based decision making, their contributions to the transformation of visual input into an action remain unclear, especially in the context of perceptual decisions based on uncertain visual evidence. This article reviews recent progress in our understanding of the BG's contributions to the formation, evaluation, and adjustment of such decisions. From theoretical and experimental perspectives, the review focuses on four key stations in the BG network, namely, the striatum, pallidum, subthalamic nucleus, and midbrain dopamine neurons, which can have different roles and together support the decision process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Ding
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA;
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7
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Dynamic control of decision and movement speed in the human basal ganglia. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7530. [PMID: 36476581 PMCID: PMC9729212 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35121-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To optimally adjust our behavior to changing environments we need to both adjust the speed of our decisions and movements. Yet little is known about the extent to which these processes are controlled by common or separate mechanisms. Furthermore, while previous evidence from computational models and empirical studies suggests that the basal ganglia play an important role during adjustments of decision-making, it remains unclear how this is implemented. Leveraging the opportunity to directly access the subthalamic nucleus of the basal ganglia in humans undergoing deep brain stimulation surgery, we here combine invasive electrophysiological recordings, electrical stimulation and computational modelling of perceptual decision-making. We demonstrate that, while similarities between subthalamic control of decision- and movement speed exist, the causal contribution of the subthalamic nucleus to these processes can be disentangled. Our results show that the basal ganglia independently control the speed of decisions and movement for each hemisphere during adaptive behavior.
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8
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Chen APF, Malgady JM, Chen L, Shi KW, Cheng E, Plotkin JL, Ge S, Xiong Q. Nigrostriatal dopamine pathway regulates auditory discrimination behavior. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5942. [PMID: 36209150 PMCID: PMC9547888 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33747-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The auditory striatum, the tail portion of dorsal striatum in basal ganglia, is implicated in perceptual decision-making, transforming auditory stimuli to action outcomes. Despite its known connections to diverse neurological conditions, the dopaminergic modulation of sensory striatal neuronal activity and its behavioral influences remain unknown. We demonstrated that the optogenetic inhibition of dopaminergic projections from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the auditory striatum specifically impairs mouse choice performance but not movement in an auditory frequency discrimination task. In vivo dopamine and calcium imaging in freely behaving mice revealed that this dopaminergic projection modulates striatal tone representations, and tone-evoked striatal dopamine release inversely correlated with the evidence strength of tones. Optogenetic inhibition of D1-receptor expressing neurons and pharmacological inhibition of D1 receptors in the auditory striatum dampened choice performance accuracy. Our study uncovers a phasic mechanism within the nigrostriatal system that regulates auditory decisions by modulating ongoing auditory perception. The auditory striatum, the tail portion of dorsal striatum, is implicated in decision-making. This study uncovers a phasic mechanism within the nigrostriatal system that regulates auditory decisions by modulating ongoing auditory perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen P F Chen
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Malgady
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Lu Chen
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Kaiyo W Shi
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Eileen Cheng
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Joshua L Plotkin
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA.,Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Shaoyu Ge
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Qiaojie Xiong
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA.
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9
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Miletić S, Keuken MC, Mulder M, Trampel R, de Hollander G, Forstmann BU. 7T functional MRI finds no evidence for distinct functional subregions in the subthalamic nucleus during a speeded decision-making task. Cortex 2022; 155:162-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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10
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Zhang Q, Zhao B, Neumann WJ, Xie H, Shi L, Zhu G, Yin Z, Qin G, Bai Y, Meng F, Yang A, Jiang Y, Zhang J. Low-frequency oscillations link frontal and parietal cortex with subthalamic nucleus in conflicts. Neuroimage 2022; 258:119389. [PMID: 35714885 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Low-frequency oscillations (LFOs, 28 Hz) in the subthalamic nucleus(STN) are known to reflect cognitive conflict. However, it is unclear if LFOs mediate communication and functional interactions among regions implicated in conflict processing, such as the motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMC), and superior parietal lobule (SPL). To investigate the potential contribution of LFOs to cognitive conflict mediation, we recorded M1, PMC, and SPL activities by right subdural electrocorticography (ECoG) simultaneously with bilateral STN local field potentials (LFPs) by deep brain stimulation electrodes in 13 patients with Parkinson's disease who performed the arrow version of the Eriksen flanker task. Elevated cue-related LFO activity was observed across patients during task trials, with the earliest onset in PMC and SPL. At cue onset, LFO power exhibited a significantly greater increase or a trend of a greater increase in the PMC, M1, and STN, and less increase in the SPL during high-conflict (incongruent) trials than in low-conflict (congruent) trials. The local LFO power increases in PMC, SPL, and right STN were correlated with response time, supporting the notion that these structures are critical hubs for cognitive conflict processing. This power increase was accompanied by increased functional connectivity between the PMC and right STN, which was correlated with response time across subjects. Finally, ipsilateral PMC-STN Granger causality was enhanced during high-conflict trials, with direction from STN to PMC. Our study indicates that LFOs link the frontal and parietal cortex with STN during conflicts, and the ipsilateral PMC-STN connection is specifically involved in this cognitive conflict processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Baotian Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Wolf-Julian Neumann
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charite´, Universita¨Tsmedizin Berlin, Charite´ Campus Mitte, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Hutao Xie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Lin Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Guanyu Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Zixiao Yin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Guofan Qin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Yutong Bai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Fangang Meng
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Anchao Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Yin Jiang
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China.
| | - Jianguo Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China; Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Capital Medical University, The South Fourth Ring Road, West Road, Fengtai District & No. 119, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neurostimulation, Beijing, 100070, China.
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11
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Moolchand P, Jones SR, Frank MJ. Biophysical and Architectural Mechanisms of Subthalamic Theta under Response Conflict. J Neurosci 2022; 42:4470-4487. [PMID: 35477903 PMCID: PMC9172290 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2433-19.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The cortico-basal ganglia circuit is needed to suppress prepotent actions and to facilitate controlled behavior. Under conditions of response conflict, the frontal cortex and subthalamic nucleus (STN) exhibit increased spiking and theta band power, which are linked to adaptive regulation of behavioral output. The electrophysiological mechanisms underlying these neural signatures of impulse control remain poorly understood. To address this lacuna, we constructed a novel large-scale, biophysically principled model of the subthalamopallidal (STN-globus pallidus externus) network and examined the mechanisms that modulate theta power and spiking in response to cortical input. Simulations confirmed that theta power does not emerge from intrinsic network dynamics but is robustly elicited in response to cortical input as burst events representing action selection dynamics. Rhythmic burst events of multiple cortical populations, representing a state of conflict where cortical motor plans vacillate in the theta range, led to prolonged STN theta and increased spiking, consistent with empirical literature. Notably, theta band signaling required NMDA, but not AMPA, currents, which were in turn related to a triphasic STN response characterized by spiking, silence, and bursting periods. Finally, theta band resonance was also strongly modulated by architectural connectivity, with maximal theta arising when multiple cortical populations project to individual STN "conflict detector" units because of an NMDA-dependent supralinear response. Our results provide insights into the biophysical principles and architectural constraints that give rise to STN dynamics during response conflict, and how their disruption can lead to impulsivity and compulsivity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The subthalamic nucleus exhibits theta band power modulation related to cognitive control over motor actions during conditions of response conflict. However, the mechanisms of such dynamics are not understood. Here we developed a novel biophysically detailed and data-constrained large-scale model of the subthalamopallidal network, and examined the impacts of cellular and network architectural properties that give rise to theta dynamics. Our investigations implicate an important role for NMDA receptors and cortico-subthalamic nucleus topographical connectivities in theta power modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prannath Moolchand
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Stephanie R Jones
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Michael J Frank
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
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12
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Arumugham SS, Srinivas D, Narayanaswamy JC, Jaisoorya TS, Kashyap H, Domenech P, Palfi S, Mallet L, Venkatasubramanian G, Reddy YJ. Identification of biomarkers that predict response to subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: protocol for an open-label follow-up study. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e047492. [PMID: 34158304 PMCID: PMC8220486 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of bilateral anteromedial subthalamic nucleus (amSTN) has been found to be helpful in a subset of patients with severe, chronic and treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Biomarkers may aid in patient selection and optimisation of this invasive treatment. In this trial, we intend to evaluate neurocognitive function related to STN and related biosignatures as potential biomarkers for STN DBS in OCD. METHODS AND ANALYSIS Twenty-four subjects with treatment-refractory OCD will undergo open-label STN DBS. Structural/functional imaging, electrophysiological recording and neurocognitive assessment would be performed at baseline. The subjects would undergo a structured clinical assessment for 12 months postsurgery. A group of 24 healthy volunteers and 24 subjects with treatment-refractory OCD who receive treatment as usual would be recruited for comparison of biomarkers and treatment response, respectively. Baseline biomarkers would be evaluated as predictors of clinical response. Neuroadaptive changes would be studied through a reassessment of neurocognitive functioning, imaging and electrophysiological activity post DBS. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION The protocol has been approved by the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences Ethics Committee. The study findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed scientific journals and scientific meetings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Sundar Arumugham
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Dwarakanath Srinivas
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Janardhanan C Narayanaswamy
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - T S Jaisoorya
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Himani Kashyap
- Department of Clinical Psychology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Philippe Domenech
- Univ Paris-Est Créteil, DMU CARE - Département Médical-Universitaire de Chirurgie et Anesthésie réanimation, DMU IMPACT, Département Médical-Universitaire de Psychiatrie et d'Addictologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires Henri Mondor, Creteil, France
- Univ of Paris 12 UPEC, Faculté de médecine, INSERM U955, Creteil, France
| | - Stéphane Palfi
- Univ Paris-Est Créteil, DMU CARE - Département Médical-Universitaire de Chirurgie et Anesthésie réanimation, DMU IMPACT, Département Médical-Universitaire de Psychiatrie et d'Addictologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires Henri Mondor, Creteil, France
- Univ of Paris 12 UPEC, Faculté de médecine, INSERM U955, Creteil, France
| | - Luc Mallet
- Institut du Cerveau, ICM, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Department of Mental Health and Psychiatry, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ganesan Venkatasubramanian
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Yc Janardhan Reddy
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
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13
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Guillaumin A, Serra GP, Georges F, Wallén-Mackenzie Å. Experimental investigation into the role of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in motor control using optogenetics in mice. Brain Res 2021; 1755:147226. [PMID: 33358727 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is critical for the execution of intended movements. Loss of its normal function is strongly associated with several movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease for which the STN is an important target area in deep brain stimulation (DBS) therapy. Classical basal ganglia models postulate that two parallel pathways, the direct and indirect pathways, exert opposing control over movement, with the STN acting within the indirect pathway. The STN is regulated by both inhibitory and excitatory input, and is itself excitatory. While most functional knowledge of this clinically relevant brain structure has been gained from pathological conditions and models, primarily parkinsonian, experimental evidence for its role in normal motor control has remained more sparse. The objective here was to tease out the selective impact of the STN on several motor parameters required to achieve intended movement, including locomotion, balance and motor coordination. Optogenetic excitation and inhibition using both bilateral and unilateral stimulations of the STN were implemented in freely-moving mice. The results demonstrate that selective optogenetic inhibition of the STN enhances locomotion while its excitation reduces locomotion. These findings lend experimental support to basal ganglia models of the STN in terms of locomotion. In addition, optogenetic excitation in freely-exploring mice induced self-grooming, disturbed gait and a jumping/escaping behavior, while causing reduced motor coordination in advanced motor tasks, independent of grooming and jumping. This study contributes experimentally validated evidence for a regulatory role of the STN in several aspects of motor control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane Guillaumin
- Department of Organism Biology, Uppsala University, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gian Pietro Serra
- Department of Organism Biology, Uppsala University, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - François Georges
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
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14
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Drummond NM, Chen R. Deep brain stimulation and recordings: Insights into the contributions of subthalamic nucleus in cognition. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117300. [PMID: 32828919 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent progress in targeted interrogation of basal ganglia structures and networks with deep brain stimulation in humans has provided insights into the complex functions the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Beyond the traditional role of the STN in modulating motor function, recognition of its role in cognition was initially fueled by side effects seen with STN DBS and later revealed with behavioral and electrophysiological studies. Anatomical, clinical, and electrophysiological data converge on the view that the STN is a pivotal node linking cognitive and motor processes. The goal of this review is to synthesize the literature to date that used DBS to examine the contributions of the STN to motor and non-motor cognitive functions and control. Multiple modalities of research have provided us with an enhanced understanding of the STN and reveal that it is critically involved in motor and non-motor inhibition, decision-making, motivation and emotion. Understanding the role of the STN in cognition can enhance the therapeutic efficacy and selectivity not only for existing applications of DBS, but also in the development of therapeutic strategies to stimulate aberrant circuits to treat non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil M Drummond
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada.
| | - Robert Chen
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada; Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H2, Canada
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15
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Breysse E, Meffre J, Pelloux Y, Winstanley CA, Baunez C. Decreased risk‐taking and loss‐chasing after subthalamic nucleus lesion in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 53:2362-2375. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Breysse
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR7289 CNRS & Aix‐Marseille Université Marseille France
| | - Julie Meffre
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR7289 CNRS & Aix‐Marseille Université Marseille France
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives UMR7289 CNRS & Aix‐Marseille Université Marseille France
| | - Yann Pelloux
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR7289 CNRS & Aix‐Marseille Université Marseille France
- IIT Genoa Italy
| | - Catharine A. Winstanley
- Department of Psychology Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain HealthUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver BC Canada
| | - Christelle Baunez
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR7289 CNRS & Aix‐Marseille Université Marseille France
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16
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Jahfari S, Ridderinkhof KR, Collins AGE, Knapen T, Waldorp LJ, Frank MJ. Cross-Task Contributions of Frontobasal Ganglia Circuitry in Response Inhibition and Conflict-Induced Slowing. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:1969-1983. [PMID: 29912363 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Why are we so slow in choosing the lesser of 2 evils? We considered whether such slowing relates to uncertainty about the value of these options, which arises from the tendency to avoid them during learning, and whether such slowing relates to frontosubthalamic inhibitory control mechanisms. In total, 49 participants performed a reinforcement-learning task and a stop-signal task while fMRI was recorded. A reinforcement-learning model was used to quantify learning strategies. Individual differences in lose-lose slowing related to information uncertainty due to sampling, and independently, to less efficient response inhibition in the stop-signal task. Neuroimaging analysis revealed an analogous dissociation: subthalamic nucleus (STN) BOLD activity related to variability in stopping latencies, whereas weaker frontosubthalamic connectivity related to slowing and information sampling. Across tasks, fast inhibitors increased STN activity for successfully canceled responses in the stop task, but decreased activity for lose-lose choices. These data support the notion that fronto-STN communication implements a rapid but transient brake on response execution, and that slowing due to decision uncertainty could result from an inefficient release of this "hold your horses" mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Jahfari
- Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, 1105 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Brain & Cognition (ABC), University of Amsterdam, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - K Richard Ridderinkhof
- Amsterdam Brain & Cognition (ABC), University of Amsterdam, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anne G E Collins
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Tomas Knapen
- Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, 1105 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Cognitive Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lourens J Waldorp
- Amsterdam Brain & Cognition (ABC), University of Amsterdam, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael J Frank
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, and Brown Institute for Brain Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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17
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Parkinsonism and subthalamic deep brain stimulation dysregulate behavioral motivation in a rodent model. Brain Res 2020; 1736:146776. [PMID: 32171706 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apathy and impulsivity constitute opposite poles of a behavioral motivation spectrum often disrupted by both the symptoms and therapies for Parkinson's Disease (PD). Upwards of 70% of PD patients experience symptoms of apathy, frequently unresolved or worsened by deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Worse, more than half of patients receiving DBS for PD experience new-onset impulse control disorders of varying severity following therapy initiation. While these symptoms and side-effects have been widely reported in clinical studies, they are largely unexplored in animal models. METHODS We applied high-frequency DBS in a 6-OHDA hemiparkinsonian rat model. We trained rats on a series of go/stop and go/no-go behavioral paradigms and examined how parkinsonism and DBS modulated task responses. RESULTS STN DBS in healthy rodents drove impulsive behavior in the form of stop and no-go task failure, impulsive reward seeking, and noninstructed task attempts. While trained rats without DBS only tended to fail stop and no-go cues very shortly after the cue, DBS led to failures at significantly later time points. Hemiparkinsonism slowed response times and reduced response rates, not alleviated by effective DBS. INTERPRETATIONS PD interrupts neural signaling responsible for healthy action selection, not restored by DBS. PD may be associated with a dearth of action commands, manifesting as apathy. Conversely, effective DBS may bias the system toward the impulsive end of the behavioral motivation spectrum without restoring behaviorally reasonable actions, mis-weighting reward-based action selection and manifesting as impulsivity, aided by DBS interfering with stop signaling.
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London D, Pourfar MH, Mogilner AY. Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus Induces Impulsive Responses to Bursts of Sensory Evidence. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:270. [PMID: 30983958 PMCID: PMC6450191 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Decisions are made through the integration of external and internal inputs until a threshold is reached, triggering a response. The subthalamic nucleus (STN) has been implicated in adjusting the decision bound to prevent impulsivity during difficult decisions. We combine model-based and model-free approaches to test the theory that the STN raises the decision bound, a process impaired by deep brain stimulation (DBS). Eight male and female human subjects receiving treatment for Parkinson's disease with bilateral DBS of the STN performed an auditory two-alternative forced choice task. By ending trials unpredictably, we collected reaction time (RT) trials in which subjects reached their decision bound and non-RT trials in which subjects were forced to make a decision with less evidence. A decreased decision bound would cause worse performance on RT trials, and we found this to be the case on left-sided RT trials. Drift diffusion modeling showed a negative drift rate. This implies that in the absence of new evidence, the amount of evidence accumulated tends to drift toward zero. If evidence is accumulated at a constant rate this results in the evidence accumulated reaching an asymptote, the distance of which from the bound was decreased by DBS (p = 0.0079, random shuffle test), preventing subjects from controlling impulsivity. Subjects were more impulsive to bursts of stimuli associated with conflict (p < 0.001, cluster mass test). In addition, DBS lowered the decision bound specifically after error trials, decreasing the probability of switching to a non-RT trial after an error compared to correct response (28% vs. 38%, p = 0.005, Fisher exact test). The STN appears to function in decision-making by modulating the decision bound and drift rate to allow the suppression of impulsive responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis London
- Department of Neurosurgery, Center for Neuromodulation, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, United States
| | - Michael H Pourfar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Center for Neuromodulation, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alon Y Mogilner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Center for Neuromodulation, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, United States
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19
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Irmen F, Horn A, Meder D, Neumann WJ, Plettig P, Schneider GH, Siebner HR, Kühn AA. Sensorimotor subthalamic stimulation restores risk-reward trade-off in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2018; 34:366-376. [PMID: 30485537 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND STN-DBS effectively treats motor symptoms of advanced PD. Nonmotor cognitive symptoms, such as impaired impulse control or decision making, may either improve or worsen with DBS. A potential mediating factor of DBS-induced modulation of cognition is the electrode position within the STN with regard to functional subareas of parallel motor, cognitive, and affective basal ganglia loops. However, to date, the volume of tissue activated and weighted stimulation of STN motor versus nonmotor territories are yet to be linked to differential DBS effects on cognition. OBJECTIVES We aim to investigate whether STN-DBS influences risk-reward trade-off decisions and analyze its dependency on electrode placement. METHODS Seventeen PD patients ON and OFF STN-DBS and 17 age-matched healthy controls conducted a sequential decision-making task with escalating risk and reward. We computed the effect of STN-DBS on risk-reward trade-off decisions, localized patients' bilateral electrodes, and analyzed the predictive value of volume of tissue activated in STN motor and nonmotor territories on behavioral change. RESULTS We found that STN-DBS not only improves PD motor symptoms, but also normalizes overly risk-averse decision behavior in PD. Intersubject variance in electrode location could explain this behavioral change. Specifically, if STN-DBS activated preferentially STN motor territory, patients' risk-reward trade-off decisions more resembled those of healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS Our findings support the notion of convergence of different functional circuits within the STN and imply a positive effect of well-placed STN-DBS on nonmotor cognitive functioning in PD. © 2018 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike Irmen
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Horn
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Meder
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Wolf-Julian Neumann
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neurosurgery, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philip Plettig
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerd-Helge Schneider
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hartwig Roman Siebner
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark.,Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Andrea A Kühn
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, Berlin, Germany
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20
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Ghahremani A, Aron AR, Udupa K, Saha U, Reddy D, Hutchison WD, Kalia SK, Hodaie M, Lozano AM, Chen R. Event-related deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus affects conflict processing. Ann Neurol 2018; 84:515-526. [PMID: 30152889 PMCID: PMC6431255 DOI: 10.1002/ana.25312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Many lines of evidence suggest that response conflict recruits brain regions in the cortical-basal ganglia system. Within the basal ganglia, deep brain recordings from the subthalamic nucleus (STN) have shown that conflict triggers a transient increase in low-frequency oscillations (LFOs; 2-8Hz). Here, we deployed a new method of delivering short trains of event-related deep brain stimulation (DBS) to the STN to test the causal role of the STN and its associated circuits in conflict-related processing. METHODS In a double-blind design, we stimulated the STN in patients with Parkinson disease by locking brief trains of DBS to specific periods of the trial within a Stroop task. RESULTS Stimulation had a specific effect on conflict compared to nonconflict trials by relatively speeding responses on conflict trials (ie, reducing the Stroop effect, defined as the difference in reaction time between conflict and nonconflict trials) when it was delivered in the preresponse period in the preparation phase. Stimulation also increased errors when it was delivered early in the response window. This latter result corresponded to the timing of the conflict-induced increase in LFOs observed in the absence of stimulation but was not directly related to the reduction in the Stroop effect. INTERPRETATION These results support the theory that the time of LFO increase recorded from the STN corresponds to a conflict-processing function. They also provide one of the first demonstrations of event-related DBS of the STN in humans during a cognitive control paradigm. Ann Neurol 2018;84:515-526.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayda Ghahremani
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Adam R. Aron
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kaviraja Udupa
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Utpal Saha
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Duemani Reddy
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Suneil K. Kalia
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Mojgan Hodaie
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Andres M. Lozano
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Robert Chen
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Edmond J. Safra Program in Parkinson’s Disease, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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21
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Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's disease changes perception in the Rubber Hand Illusion. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13842. [PMID: 30218057 PMCID: PMC6138647 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31867-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) alters cortico-basal ganglia-thalamic circuitry and susceptibility to an illusion of bodily awareness, the Rubber Hand Illusion (RHI). Bodily awareness is thought to result from multisensory integration in a predominantly cortical network; the role of subcortical connections is unknown. We studied the effect of modulating cortico-subcortical circuitry on multisensory integration for bodily awareness in 24 PD patients treated with subthalamic nucleus (STN) deep brain stimulation (DBS), in comparison to 21 healthy volunteers, using the RHI experiment. Typically, synchronous visuo-tactile cues induce a false perception of touch on the rubber hand as if it were the subject’s hand, whereas asynchronous visuo-tactile cues do not. However, we found that in the asynchronous condition, patients in the off-stimulation state did not reject the RHI as strongly as healthy controls; patients’ rejection of the RHI strengthened when STN-DBS was switched on, although it remained weaker than that of controls. Patients in the off-stimulation state also misjudged the position of their hand, indicating it to be closer to the rubber hand than controls. However, STN-DBS did not affect proprioceptive judgements or subsequent arm movements altered by the perceptual effects of the illusion. Our findings support the idea that the STN and subcortical connections have a key role in multisensory integration for bodily awareness. Decision-making in multisensory bodily illusions is discussed.
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22
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Neumann WJ, Schroll H, de Almeida Marcelino AL, Horn A, Ewert S, Irmen F, Krause P, Schneider GH, Hamker F, Kühn AA. Functional segregation of basal ganglia pathways in Parkinson’s disease. Brain 2018; 141:2655-2669. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wolf-Julian Neumann
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Henning Schroll
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ana Luisa de Almeida Marcelino
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Horn
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Siobhan Ewert
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Friederike Irmen
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Patricia Krause
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerd-Helge Schneider
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fred Hamker
- Department of Computer Science, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Andrea A Kühn
- Movement Disorder and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité Campus Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Neurocure, Centre of Excellence, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- DZNE, German Center for Degenerative Diseases, Berlin, Germany
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23
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Mechanisms Underlying Decision-Making as Revealed by Deep-Brain Stimulation in Patients with Parkinson's Disease. Curr Biol 2018; 28:1169-1178.e6. [PMID: 29606416 PMCID: PMC5912902 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.02.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
To optimally balance opposing demands of speed and accuracy during decision-making, we must flexibly adapt how much evidence we require before making a choice. Such adjustments in decision thresholds have been linked to the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and therapeutic STN deep-brain stimulation (DBS) has been shown to interfere with this function. Here, we performed continuous as well as closed-loop DBS of the STN while Parkinson’s disease patients performed a perceptual decision-making task. Closed-loop STN DBS allowed temporally patterned STN stimulation and simultaneous recordings of STN activity. This revealed that DBS only affected patients’ ability to adjust decision thresholds if applied in a specific temporally confined time window during deliberation. Only stimulation in that window diminished the normal slowing of response times that occurred on difficult trials when DBS was turned off. Furthermore, DBS eliminated a relative, time-specific increase in STN beta oscillations and compromised its functional relationship with trial-by-trial adjustments in decision thresholds. Together, these results provide causal evidence that the STN is involved in adjusting decision thresholds in distinct, time-limited processing windows during deliberation. We performed temporally patterned stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in humans During stimulation, Parkinson’s patients performed a perceptual decision-making task Stimulation effects on behavior were confined to a short window during deliberation Here, stimulation affected changes in decision thresholds during difficult decisions
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24
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Dissociable Effects of Subthalamic Stimulation in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder on Risky Reward and Loss Prospects. Neuroscience 2018; 382:105-114. [PMID: 29559386 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Our daily decisions involve an element of risk, a behavioral process that is potentially modifiable. Here we assess the role of the associative-limbic subthalamic nucleus (STN) in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) testing on and off deep-brain stimulation (DBS) on anticipatory risk taking to obtain rewards and avoid losses. We assessed 12 OCD STN DBS in a randomized double-blind within-subject cross-over design. STN DBS decreased risk taking to rewards (p = 0.02) and greater risk taking to rewards was positively correlated with OCD severity (p = 0.01) and disease duration (p = 0.01). STN DBS was also associated with impaired subjective discrimination of loss magnitude (p < 0.05), an effect mediated by acute DBS rather than chronic DBS. We highlight a role for the STN in mediating dissociable valence prospects on risk seeking. STN stimulation decreases risk taking to rewards and impairs discrimination of loss magnitude. These findings may have implications for behavioral symptoms related to STN DBS and the potential for STN DBS for the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
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25
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Leimbach F, Georgiev D, Litvak V, Antoniades C, Limousin P, Jahanshahi M, Bogacz R. Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus Does Not Affect the Decrease of Decision Threshold during the Choice Process When There Is No Conflict, Time Pressure, or Reward. J Cogn Neurosci 2018; 30:876-884. [PMID: 29488846 PMCID: PMC6037388 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
During a decision process, the evidence supporting alternative options is integrated over time, and the choice is made when the accumulated evidence for one of the options reaches a decision threshold. Humans and animals have an ability to control the decision threshold, that is, the amount of evidence that needs to be gathered to commit to a choice, and it has been proposed that the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is important for this control. Recent behavioral and neurophysiological data suggest that, in some circumstances, the decision threshold decreases with time during choice trials, allowing overcoming of indecision during difficult choices. Here we asked whether this within-trial decrease of the decision threshold is mediated by the STN and if it is affected by disrupting information processing in the STN through deep brain stimulation (DBS). We assessed 13 patients with Parkinson disease receiving bilateral STN DBS six or more months after the surgery, 11 age-matched controls, and 12 young healthy controls. All participants completed a series of decision trials, in which the evidence was presented in discrete time points, which allowed more direct estimation of the decision threshold. The participants differed widely in the slope of their decision threshold, ranging from constant threshold within a trial to steeply decreasing. However, the slope of the decision threshold did not depend on whether STN DBS was switched on or off and did not differ between the patients and controls. Furthermore, there was no difference in accuracy and RT between the patients in the on and off stimulation conditions and healthy controls. Previous studies that have reported modulation of the decision threshold by STN DBS or unilateral subthalamotomy in Parkinson disease have involved either fast decision-making under conflict or time pressure or in anticipation of high reward. Our findings suggest that, in the absence of reward, decision conflict, or time pressure for decision-making, the STN does not play a critical role in modulating the within-trial decrease of decision thresholds during the choice process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Marjan Jahanshahi
- University College London Institute of Neurology.,University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
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26
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Zavala B, Damera S, Dong JW, Lungu C, Brown P, Zaghloul KA. Human Subthalamic Nucleus Theta and Beta Oscillations Entrain Neuronal Firing During Sensorimotor Conflict. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:496-508. [PMID: 26494798 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhv244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence has suggested that prefrontal cortical structures may inhibit impulsive actions during conflict through activation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Consistent with this hypothesis, deep brain stimulation to the STN has been associated with altered prefrontal cortical activity and impaired response inhibition. The interactions between oscillatory activity in the STN and its presumably antikinetic neuronal spiking, however, remain poorly understood. Here, we simultaneously recorded intraoperative local field potential and spiking activity from the human STN as participants performed a sensorimotor action selection task involving conflict. We identified several STN neuronal response types that exhibited different temporal dynamics during the task. Some neurons showed early, cue-related firing rate increases that remained elevated longer during high conflict trials, whereas other neurons showed late, movement-related firing rate increases. Notably, the high conflict trials were associated with an entrainment of individual neurons by theta- and beta-band oscillations, both of which have been observed in cortical structures involved in response inhibition. Our data suggest that frequency-specific activity in the beta and theta bands influence STN firing to inhibit impulsivity during conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baltazar Zavala
- Surgical Neurology Branch.,Experimental Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | | | | | - Codrin Lungu
- Office of Clinical Director, NINDS, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Peter Brown
- Experimental Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.,Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK
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27
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Hauser TU, Moutoussis M, Dayan P, Dolan RJ. Increased decision thresholds trigger extended information gathering across the compulsivity spectrum. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:1296. [PMID: 29249811 PMCID: PMC5802702 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-017-0040-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Indecisiveness and doubt are cognitive phenotypes of compulsive disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder. Little is known regarding the cognitive mechanisms that drive these behaviours across a compulsivity spectrum. Here, we used a sequential information gathering task to study indecisiveness in subjects with high and low obsessive-compulsive scores. These subjects were selected from a large population-representative database, and matched for intellectual and psychiatric factors. We show that high compulsive subjects sampled more information and performed better when sampling was cost-free. When sampling was costly, both groups adapted flexibly to reduce their information gathering. Computational modelling revealed that increased information gathering behaviour could be explained by higher decision thresholds that, in turn, were driven by a delayed emergence of impatience or urgency. Our findings show that indecisiveness generalises to a compulsivity spectrum beyond frank clinical disorder, and this behaviour can be explained within a decision-theoretic framework as arising from an augmented decision threshold associated with an attenuated urgency signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias U. Hauser
- grid.450002.3Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG United Kingdom ,0000000121901201grid.83440.3bMax Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, London, WC1B 5EH United Kingdom
| | - Michael Moutoussis
- grid.450002.3Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG United Kingdom ,0000000121901201grid.83440.3bMax Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, London, WC1B 5EH United Kingdom
| | | | - Peter Dayan
- 0000000121901201grid.83440.3bGatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Raymond J. Dolan
- grid.450002.3Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG United Kingdom ,0000000121901201grid.83440.3bMax Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, London, WC1B 5EH United Kingdom
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28
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Irmen F, Huebl J, Schroll H, Brücke C, Schneider GH, Hamker FH, Kühn AA. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation impairs emotional conflict adaptation in Parkinson's disease. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2017; 12:1594-1604. [PMID: 28985419 PMCID: PMC5647801 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsx090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) occupies a strategic position in the motor network, slowing down responses in situations with conflicting perceptual input. Recent evidence suggests a role of the STN in emotion processing through strong connections with emotion recognition structures. As deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the STN in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) inhibits monitoring of perceptual and value-based conflict, STN DBS may also interfere with emotional conflict processing. To assess a possible interference of STN DBS with emotional conflict processing, we used an emotional Stroop paradigm. Subjects categorized face stimuli according to their emotional expression while ignoring emotionally congruent or incongruent superimposed word labels. Eleven PD patients ON and OFF STN DBS and eleven age-matched healthy subjects conducted the task. We found conflict-induced response slowing in healthy controls and PD patients OFF DBS, but not ON DBS, suggesting STN DBS to decrease adaptation to within-trial conflict. OFF DBS, patients showed more conflict-induced slowing for negative conflict stimuli, which was diminished by STN DBS. Computational modelling of STN influence on conflict adaptation disclosed DBS to interfere via increased baseline activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike Irmen
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin 10117 Germany
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Julius Huebl
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Henning Schroll
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Christof Brücke
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Gerd-Helge Schneider
- Department of Computer Science, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Fred H Hamker
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
| | - Andrea A Kühn
- Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin 10117 Germany
- Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
- NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin 10117, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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29
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Herz DM, Tan H, Brittain JS, Fischer P, Cheeran B, Green AL, FitzGerald J, Aziz TZ, Ashkan K, Little S, Foltynie T, Limousin P, Zrinzo L, Bogacz R, Brown P. Distinct mechanisms mediate speed-accuracy adjustments in cortico-subthalamic networks. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28137358 PMCID: PMC5287713 DOI: 10.7554/elife.21481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Optimal decision-making requires balancing fast but error-prone and more accurate but slower decisions through adjustments of decision thresholds. Here, we demonstrate two distinct correlates of such speed-accuracy adjustments by recording subthalamic nucleus (STN) activity and electroencephalography in 11 Parkinson’s disease patients during a perceptual decision-making task; STN low-frequency oscillatory (LFO) activity (2–8 Hz), coupled to activity at prefrontal electrode Fz, and STN beta activity (13–30 Hz) coupled to electrodes C3/C4 close to motor cortex. These two correlates differed not only in their cortical topography and spectral characteristics but also in the relative timing of recruitment and in their precise relationship with decision thresholds. Increases of STN LFO power preceding the response predicted increased thresholds only after accuracy instructions, while cue-induced reductions of STN beta power decreased thresholds irrespective of instructions. These findings indicate that distinct neural mechanisms determine whether a decision will be made in haste or with caution. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21481.001 In everyday decisions, we have to balance how quickly we need to make a decision with how accurate we want our decision to be. For example, if you plan your next holiday you might want to make sure that you pick the best destination without caring too much about the time it takes to arrive at that decision. On the other hand, in your lunch break you might want to quickly choose between the different meals on the menu to make sure you are back at work on time, even though you might overlook a dish that you would have preferred. This effect – that decisions we make in haste are more likely to be suboptimal than slower, more deliberate decisions – is known as the speed-accuracy trade-off. One theory suggests that the activity of a brain area termed the subthalamic nucleus reflects whether people will prioritize speed or accuracy during decision-making. This area is seated deep inside the brain, meaning that it is normally difficult to record its activity. Herz et al. have now recorded the activity of the subthalamic nucleus in individuals with Parkinson’s disease who underwent brain surgery as part of their treatment. When these individuals switched between fast and cautious decision-making, the activity in the subthalamic nucleus changed, as did its relationship with the activity seen in other brain areas. Furthermore, these activity changes predicted how much information participants acquired before committing to a choice. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is now a standard treatment for Parkinson’s disease. It will be important to assess whether this treatment affects the changes in subthalamic activity that are related to decision-making, and whether this affects whether an individual is more likely to make fast or accurate decisions. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21481.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian M Herz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Huiling Tan
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John-Stuart Brittain
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Petra Fischer
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Binith Cheeran
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander L Green
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James FitzGerald
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tipu Z Aziz
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keyoumars Ashkan
- Department of Neurosurgery, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Little
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ludvic Zrinzo
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rafal Bogacz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Brown
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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30
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Voon V, Droux F, Morris L, Chabardes S, Bougerol T, David O, Krack P, Polosan M. Decisional impulsivity and the associative-limbic subthalamic nucleus in obsessive-compulsive disorder: stimulation and connectivity. Brain 2016; 140:442-456. [PMID: 28040671 PMCID: PMC5278307 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aww309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Why do we make hasty decisions for short-term gain? Rapid decision-making with limited accumulation of evidence and delay discounting are forms of decisional impulsivity. The subthalamic nucleus is implicated in inhibitory function but its role in decisional impulsivity is less well-understood. Here we assess decisional impulsivity in subjects with obsessive compulsive disorder who have undergone deep brain stimulation of the limbic and associative subthalamic nucleus. We show that stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is causally implicated in increasing decisional impulsivity with less accumulation of evidence during probabilistic uncertainty and in enhancing delay discounting. Subthalamic stimulation shifts evidence accumulation in subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder towards a functional less cautious style closer to that of healthy controls emphasizing its adaptive nature. Thus, subjects with obsessive compulsive disorder on subthalamic stimulation may be less likely to check for evidence (e.g. checking that the stove is on) with no difference in subjective confidence (or doubt). In a separate study, we replicate in humans (154 healthy controls) using resting state functional connectivity, tracing studies conducted in non-human primates dissociating limbic, associative and motor frontal hyper-direct connectivity with anterior and posterior subregions of the subthalamic nucleus. We show lateralization of functional connectivity of bilateral ventral striatum to right anterior ventromedial subthalamic nucleus consistent with previous observations of lateralization of emotionally evoked activity to right ventral subthalamic nucleus. We use a multi-echo sequence with independent components analysis, which has been shown to have enhanced signal-to-noise ratio, thus optimizing visualization of small subcortical structures. These findings in healthy controls converge with the effective contacts in obsessive compulsive disorder patients localized within the anterior and ventral subthalamic nucleus. We further show that evidence accumulation is associated with anterior associative-limbic subthalamic nucleus and right dorsolateral prefrontal functional connectivity in healthy controls, a region implicated in decision-making under uncertainty. Together, our findings highlight specificity of the anterior associative-limbic subthalamic nucleus in decisional impulsivity. Given increasing interest in the potential for subthalamic stimulation in psychiatric disorders and the neuropsychiatric symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, these findings have clinical implications for behavioural symptoms and cognitive effects as a function of localization of subthalamic stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Voon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK .,Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Fabien Droux
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Laurel Morris
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Stephan Chabardes
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Thierry Bougerol
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Olivier David
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Paul Krack
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences; Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Mircea Polosan
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1216 Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, CHU Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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31
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Zaehle T, Wagenbreth C, Voges J, Heinze HJ, Galazky I. Effects of deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on perceptual decision making. Neuroscience 2016; 343:140-146. [PMID: 27956065 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
When faced with difficult decisions, people prefer to stay with the default. This status quo bias often leads to suboptimal choice behavior. Neurophysiological evidence suggests a pivot role of the Subthalamic Nucleus (STN) for overcoming such status quo bias in difficult decisions, but causal evidence is lacking. The present study investigated whether subthalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) influences the status quo bias. Eighteen PD patients treated with STN-DBS performed a difficult perceptual decision task incorporating intrinsic status quo option. Patients were tested with (ON) and without (OFF) active STN stimulation. Our results show that DBS of the STN affected perceptual decision making in PD patients depending on the difficulty of decision. STN-DBS improved difficult perceptual decisions due to a selective increase in accuracy (hit rate) that was independent of response bias (no effect on false alarm rate). Furthermore, STN-DBS impacted status quo bias as a function of baseline impulsivity. In impulsive patients, STN-DBS increased the default bias, whereas in less impulsive PD patients, DBS of the STN reduced the status quo bias. In line with our hypothesis, STN-DBS selectively affected the tendency to stick with the default option on difficult decisions, and promoted increased decision accuracy. Moreover, we demonstrate the impact of baseline cognitive abilities on DBS-related performance changes in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tino Zaehle
- Department of Neurology and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - Caroline Wagenbreth
- Department of Neurology and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Voges
- Department of Neurology and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Hans-Jochen Heinze
- Department of Neurology and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Imke Galazky
- Department of Neurology and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Magdeburg, Germany
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32
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Mulders AEP, Plantinga BR, Schruers K, Duits A, Janssen MLF, Ackermans L, Leentjens AFG, Jahanshahi A, Temel Y. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Neuroanatomical and pathophysiological considerations. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 26:1909-1919. [PMID: 27838106 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is among the most disabling chronic psychiatric disorders and has a significant negative impact on multiple domains of quality of life. For patients suffering from severe refractory OCD, deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) has been applied. Reviewing the literature of the last years we believe that through its central position within the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits, the STN has a coordinating role in decision-making and action-selection mechanisms. Dysfunctional information-processing at the level of the STN is responsible for some of the core symptoms of OCD. Research confirms an electrophysiological dysfunction in the associative and limbic (non-motor) parts of the STN. Compared to Parkinson׳s disease patients, STN neurons in OCD exhibit a lower firing rate, less frequent but longer bursts, increased burst activity in the anterior ventromedial area, an asymmetrical left-sided burst distribution, and a predominant oscillatory activity in the δ-band. Moreover, there is direct evidence for the involvement of the STN in both checking behavior and OCD symptoms, which are both related to changes in electrophysiological activity in the non-motor STN. Through a combination of mechanisms, DBS of the STN seems to interrupt the disturbed information-processing, leading to a normalization of connectivity within the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits and consequently to a reduction in symptoms. In conclusion, based on the STN׳s strategic position within cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits and its involvement in action-selection mechanisms that are responsible for some of the core symptoms of OCD, the STN is a mechanism-based target for DBS in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E P Mulders
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - B R Plantinga
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Image Analysis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - K Schruers
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - A Duits
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - M L F Janssen
- Department of Neurology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - L Ackermans
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - A F G Leentjens
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - A Jahanshahi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Y Temel
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Translational Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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33
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Impulse control disorders (ICDs) have become a widely recognized non-motor complication of Parkinson's disease (PD) in patients taking dopamine replacement therapy (DRT). There are no current evidence-based recommendations for their treatment, other than reducing their dopaminergic medication. METHODS This study reviews the current literature of the treatment of ICDs including pharmacological treatments, deep brain stimulation, and psychotherapeutic interventions. RESULTS Dopamine agonist withdrawal is the most common and effective treatment, but may lead to an aversive withdrawal syndrome or motor symptom degeneration in some individuals. There is insufficient evidence for all other pharmacological treatments in treating ICDs in PD, including amantadine, serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors, antipsychotics, anticonvulsants, and opioid antagonists (e.g. naltrexone). Large randomized control trials need to be performed before these drugs can be routinely used for the treatment of ICDs in PD. Deep brain stimulation remains equivocal because ICD symptoms resolve in some patients after surgery but may appear de novo in others. Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown to improve ICD symptoms in the only published study, although further research is urgently needed. CONCLUSIONS Further research will allow for the development of evidence-based guidelines for the management of ICDs in PD.
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34
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Seymour B, Barbe M, Dayan P, Shiner T, Dolan R, Fink GR. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus modulates sensitivity to decision outcome value in Parkinson's disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32509. [PMID: 27624437 PMCID: PMC5021944 DOI: 10.1038/srep32509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson’s disease is known to cause a subtle but important adverse impact on behaviour, with impulsivity its most widely reported manifestation. However, precisely which computational components of the decision process are modulated is not fully understood. Here we probe a number of distinct subprocesses, including temporal discount, outcome utility, instrumental learning rate, instrumental outcome sensitivity, reward-loss trade-offs, and perseveration. We tested 22 Parkinson’s Disease patients both on and off subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN-DBS), while they performed an instrumental learning task involving financial rewards and losses, and an inter-temporal choice task for financial rewards. We found that instrumental learning performance was significantly worse following stimulation, due to modulation of instrumental outcome sensitivity. Specifically, patients became less sensitive to decision values for both rewards and losses, but without any change to the learning rate or reward-loss trade-offs. However, we found no evidence that DBS modulated different components of temporal impulsivity. In conclusion, our results implicate the subthalamic nucleus in a modulation of outcome value in experience-based learning and decision-making in Parkinson’s disease, suggesting a more pervasive role of the subthalamic nucleus in the control of human decision-making than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Seymour
- Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, UCL, London, UK.,Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute for Information and Communications Technology, Japan
| | - Michael Barbe
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Cologne, Germany.,Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Centre, Jülich, Germany
| | - Peter Dayan
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, UCL, London, UK
| | - Tamara Shiner
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, UCL, London, UK
| | - Ray Dolan
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, UCL, London, UK
| | - Gereon R Fink
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Cologne, Germany.,Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Centre, Jülich, Germany
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35
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Zavala B, Tan H, Little S, Ashkan K, Green AL, Aziz T, Foltynie T, Zrinzo L, Zaghloul K, Brown P. Decisions Made with Less Evidence Involve Higher Levels of Corticosubthalamic Nucleus Theta Band Synchrony. J Cogn Neurosci 2016; 28:811-25. [PMID: 26845109 PMCID: PMC5111088 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The switch between automatic action selection and more controlled forms of decision-making is a dynamic process thought to involve both cortical and subcortical structures. During sensory conflict, medial pFC oscillations in the theta band (<8 Hz) drive those of the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and this is thought to increase the threshold of evidence needed for one competing response to be selected over another. Here, we were interested in testing whether STN activity is also altered by the rate at which evidence is presented during a congruent dot motion task absent of any explicit sensory conflict. By having a series of randomly moving dots gradually transform to congruent motion at three different rates (slow, medium, fast), we were able to show that a slower rate increased the time it took participants to make a response but did not alter the total amount of evidence that was integrated before the response. Notably, this resulted in a decision being made with a lower amount of instantaneous evidence during the slow and medium trials. Consistent with the idea that medial pFC-STN activity is involved in executing cognitive control, the higher levels of ambiguity during these trials were associated with increased theta band synchrony between the cortex and the STN, with the cortical oscillations Granger-causal to those of the STN. These results further confirm the involvement of the STN in decision-making and suggest that the disruption of this network may underlie some of the unwanted cognitive deficits associated with STN deep brain stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baltazar Zavala
- University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Bethesda, MD, USA
- National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Huiling Tan
- University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, London, UK
| | | | | | - Alexander L. Green
- University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, London, UK
| | - Tipu Aziz
- University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, London, UK
| | | | | | | | - Peter Brown
- University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, London, UK
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36
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Zavala B, Tan H, Ashkan K, Foltynie T, Limousin P, Zrinzo L, Zaghloul K, Brown P. Human subthalamic nucleus-medial frontal cortex theta phase coherence is involved in conflict and error related cortical monitoring. Neuroimage 2016; 137:178-187. [PMID: 27181763 PMCID: PMC4927260 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is thought to control the shift from automatic to controlled action selection when conflict is present or when mistakes have been recently committed. Growing evidence suggests that this process involves frequency specific communication in the theta (4-8Hz) band between the mPFC and the subthalamic nucleus (STN), which is the main target of deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson's disease. Key in this hypothesis is the finding that DBS can lead to impulsivity by disrupting the correlation between higher mPFC oscillations and slower reaction times during conflict. In order to test whether theta band coherence between the mPFC and the STN underlies adjustments to conflict and to errors, we simultaneously recorded mPFC and STN electrophysiological activity while DBS patients performed an arrowed flanker task. These recordings revealed higher theta phase coherence between the two sites during the high conflict trials relative to the low conflict trials. These differences were observed soon after conflicting arrows were displayed, but before a response was executed. Furthermore, trials that occurred after an error was committed showed higher phase coherence relative to trials that followed a correct trial, suggesting that mPFC-STN connectivity may also play a role in error related adjustments in behavior. Interestingly, the phase coherence we observed occurred before increases in theta power, implying that the theta phase and power may influence behavior at separate times during cortical monitoring. Finally, we showed that pre-stimulus differences in STN theta power were related to the reaction time on a given trial, which may help adjust behavior based on the probability of observing conflict during a task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baltazar Zavala
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK; Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, 3D20, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Huiling Tan
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK; Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, OX1 3TH, UK
| | - Keyoumars Ashkan
- Department of Neurosurgery, King's College Hospital, King's College, London SE5 9RS, UK
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1 3BG, UK
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1 3BG, UK
| | - Ludvic Zrinzo
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, London WC1 3BG, UK
| | - Kareem Zaghloul
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, 3D20, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Peter Brown
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK; Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, OX1 3TH, UK
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Zénon A, Duclos Y, Carron R, Witjas T, Baunez C, Régis J, Azulay JP, Brown P, Eusebio A. The human subthalamic nucleus encodes the subjective value of reward and the cost of effort during decision-making. Brain 2016; 139:1830-43. [PMID: 27190012 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aww075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptive behaviour entails the capacity to select actions as a function of their energy cost and expected value and the disruption of this faculty is now viewed as a possible cause of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Indirect evidence points to the involvement of the subthalamic nucleus-the most common target for deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease-in cost-benefit computation. However, this putative function appears at odds with the current view that the subthalamic nucleus is important for adjusting behaviour to conflict. Here we tested these contrasting hypotheses by recording the neuronal activity of the subthalamic nucleus of patients with Parkinson's disease during an effort-based decision task. Local field potentials were recorded from the subthalamic nucleus of 12 patients with advanced Parkinson's disease (mean age 63.8 years ± 6.8; mean disease duration 9.4 years ± 2.5) both OFF and ON levodopa while they had to decide whether to engage in an effort task based on the level of effort required and the value of the reward promised in return. The data were analysed using generalized linear mixed models and cluster-based permutation methods. Behaviourally, the probability of trial acceptance increased with the reward value and decreased with the required effort level. Dopamine replacement therapy increased the rate of acceptance for efforts associated with low rewards. When recording the subthalamic nucleus activity, we found a clear neural response to both reward and effort cues in the 1-10 Hz range. In addition these responses were informative of the subjective value of reward and level of effort rather than their actual quantities, such that they were predictive of the participant's decisions. OFF levodopa, this link with acceptance was weakened. Finally, we found that these responses did not index conflict, as they did not vary as a function of the distance from indifference in the acceptance decision. These findings show that low-frequency neuronal activity in the subthalamic nucleus may encode the information required to make cost-benefit comparisons, rather than signal conflict. The link between these neural responses and behaviour was stronger under dopamine replacement therapy. Our findings are consistent with the view that Parkinson's disease symptoms may be caused by a disruption of the processes involved in balancing the value of actions with their associated effort cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Zénon
- 1 Institute of Neurosciences, Université Catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yann Duclos
- 2 Institut de Neurosciences de La Timone UMR 7289, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Romain Carron
- 3 APHM, CHU Timone, Department of Functional and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Tatiana Witjas
- 2 Institut de Neurosciences de La Timone UMR 7289, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, 13385, Marseille, France 4 APHM, CHU Timone, Department of Neurology and Movement Disorders, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Christelle Baunez
- 2 Institut de Neurosciences de La Timone UMR 7289, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Jean Régis
- 3 APHM, CHU Timone, Department of Functional and Stereotactic Neurosurgery, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Azulay
- 2 Institut de Neurosciences de La Timone UMR 7289, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, 13385, Marseille, France 4 APHM, CHU Timone, Department of Neurology and Movement Disorders, 13385, Marseille, France
| | - Peter Brown
- 5 Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit and Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Alexandre Eusebio
- 2 Institut de Neurosciences de La Timone UMR 7289, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, 13385, Marseille, France 4 APHM, CHU Timone, Department of Neurology and Movement Disorders, 13385, Marseille, France
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Herz DM, Zavala BA, Bogacz R, Brown P. Neural Correlates of Decision Thresholds in the Human Subthalamic Nucleus. Curr Biol 2016; 26:916-20. [PMID: 26996501 PMCID: PMC4826434 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
If humans are faced with difficult choices when making decisions, the ability to slow down responses becomes critical in order to avoid suboptimal choices. Current models of decision making assume that the subthalamic nucleus (STN) mediates this function by elevating decision thresholds, thereby requiring more evidence to be accumulated before responding [1-9]. However, direct electrophysiological evidence for the exact role of STN during adjustment of decision thresholds is lacking. Here, we show that trial-by-trial variations in STN low-frequency oscillatory activity predict adjustments of decision thresholds before subjects make a response. The relationship between STN activity and decision thresholds critically depends on the subjects' level of cautiousness. While increased oscillatory activity of the STN predicts elevated decision thresholds during high levels of cautiousness, it predicts decreased decision thresholds during low levels of cautiousness. This context-dependent relationship may be mediated by increased influence of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-STN pathway on decision thresholds during high cautiousness. Subjects who exhibit a stronger increase in phase alignment of low-frequency oscillatory activity in mPFC and STN before making a response have higher decision thresholds and commit fewer erroneous responses. Together, our results demonstrate that STN low-frequency oscillatory activity and corresponding mPFC-STN coupling are involved in determining how much evidence subjects accumulate before making a decision. This finding might explain why deep-brain stimulation of the STN can impair subjects' ability to slow down responses and can induce impulsive suboptimal decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian M Herz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK; Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Level 6, West Wing, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Baltazar A Zavala
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Level 6, West Wing, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK; Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, 3D 20, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Rafal Bogacz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK; Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Level 6, West Wing, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Peter Brown
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TH, UK; Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Level 6, West Wing, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.
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Tewari A, Jog R, Jog MS. The Striatum and Subthalamic Nucleus as Independent and Collaborative Structures in Motor Control. Front Syst Neurosci 2016; 10:17. [PMID: 26973474 PMCID: PMC4771745 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2016.00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The striatum and the subthalamic nucleus (STN) are two separate input structures into the basal ganglia (BG). Accordingly, research to date has primarily focused on the distinct roles of these structures in motor control and cognition, often through investigation of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Both structures are divided into sensorimotor, associative, and limbic subdivisions based on cortical connectivity. The more recent discovery of the STN as an input structure into the BG drives comparison of these two structures and their respective roles in cognition and motor control. This review compares the role of the striatum and STN in motor response inhibition and execution, competing motor programs, feedback based learning, and response planning. Through comparison, it is found that the striatum and STN have highly independent roles in motor control but also collaborate in order to execute desired actions. There is also the possibility that inhibition or activation of one of these structures indirectly contributes to the function of other connected anatomical structures. Both structures contribute to selective motor response inhibition, which forms the basis of many tasks, but the STN additionally contributes to global inhibition through the hyperdirect pathway. Research is warranted on the functional connectivity of the network for inhibition involving the rIFG, preSMA, striatum, and STN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alia Tewari
- London Health Sciences Centre London, ON, Canada
| | - Rachna Jog
- London Health Sciences Centre London, ON, Canada
| | - Mandar S Jog
- London Health Sciences Centre London, ON, Canada
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Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation induces impulsive action when patients with Parkinson's disease act under speed pressure. Exp Brain Res 2016; 234:1837-1848. [PMID: 26892884 PMCID: PMC4893074 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-016-4577-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is proposed to modulate response thresholds and speed–accuracy trade-offs. In situations of conflict, the STN is considered to raise response thresholds, allowing time for the accumulation of information to occur before a response is selected. Conversely, speed pressure is thought to reduce the activity of the STN and lower response thresholds, resulting in fast, errorful responses. In Parkinson’s disease (PD), subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN-DBS) reduces the activity of the nucleus and improves motor symptoms. We predicted that the combined effects of STN stimulation and speed pressure would lower STN activity and lead to fast, errorful responses, hence resulting in impulsive action. We used the motion discrimination ‘moving-dots’ task to assess speed–accuracy trade-offs, under both speed and accuracy instructions. We assessed 12 patients with PD and bilateral STN-DBS and 12 age-matched healthy controls. Participants completed the task twice, and the patients completed it once with STN-DBS on and once with STN-DBS off, with order counterbalanced. We found that STN stimulation was associated with significantly faster reaction times but more errors under speed instructions. Application of the drift diffusion model showed that stimulation resulted in lower response thresholds when acting under speed pressure. These findings support the involvement of the STN in the modulation of speed–accuracy trade-offs and establish for the first time that speed pressure alone, even in the absence of conflict, can result in STN stimulation inducing impulsive action in PD.
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A fronto–striato–subthalamic–pallidal network for goal-directed and habitual inhibition. Nat Rev Neurosci 2015; 16:719-32. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn4038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 352] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Djamshidian A, O'Sullivan SS, Tomassini A, Foltynie T, Limousin P, Aviles-Olmos I, Warner TT, Lees AJ, Averbeck BB. In a rush to decide: deep brain stimulation and dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2015; 4:579-83. [PMID: 25061059 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-140388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been suggested that all patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) who undergo functional neurosurgery have difficulties in slowing down in high conflict tasks. However, it is unclear whether concomitant dopaminergic medication is responsible for this impairment. OBJECTIVE To assess perceptual decision making in PD patients with bilateral deep brain stimulation. METHODS We tested 27 PD patients with bilateral deep brain stimulation on a task in which participants had to filter task relevant information from background noise. Thirteen patients were treated with Levodopa monotherapy and 14 patients were treated with Levodopa in combination with a dopamine agonist. RESULTS were compared to healthy matched controls. RESULTS We found that all PD patients who were treated with a dopamine agonist made faster decisions than controls and PD patients who were not exposed to a dopamine agonist. Further, all patients made more errors than controls, but there was no difference between the two patient groups. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that dopamine agonist therapy rather than deep brain stimulation is likely responsible for the inability to slow down in high conflict situations in PD. These results further strengthen the need to reduce dopamine agonists in PD patients undergoing functional neurosurgery in order to prevent them making inadvisable decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atbin Djamshidian
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience and Reta Lila Weston Institute for Neurological Studies, University of London, London, UK Department of Neurology, University Clinic Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | | | - Alessandro Tomassini
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Iciar Aviles-Olmos
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Thomas T Warner
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience and Reta Lila Weston Institute for Neurological Studies, University of London, London, UK
| | - Andrew J Lees
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience and Reta Lila Weston Institute for Neurological Studies, University of London, London, UK
| | - Bruno B Averbeck
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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43
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Keuken MC, Van Maanen L, Bogacz R, Schäfer A, Neumann J, Turner R, Forstmann BU. The subthalamic nucleus during decision-making with multiple alternatives. Hum Brain Mapp 2015; 36:4041-4052. [PMID: 26178078 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Several prominent neurocomputational models predict that an increase of choice alternatives is modulated by increased activity in the subthalamic nucleus (STN). In turn, increased STN activity allows prolonged accumulation of information. At the same time, areas in the medial frontal cortex such as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the pre-SMA are hypothesized to influence the information processing in the STN. This study set out to test concrete predictions of STN activity in multiple-alternative decision-making using a multimodal combination of 7 Tesla structural and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and ancestral graph (AG) modeling. The results are in line with the predictions in that increased STN activity was found with an increasing amount of choice alternatives. In addition, our study shows that activity in the ACC is correlated with activity in the STN without directly modulating it. This result sheds new light on the information processing streams between medial frontal cortex and the basal ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max C Keuken
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Neurophysics, Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Leendert Van Maanen
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rafal Bogacz
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Schäfer
- Department of Neurophysics, Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jane Neumann
- Department of Neurology, Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Robert Turner
- Department of Neurophysics, Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Birte U Forstmann
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Neurophysics, Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstrasse 1a, Leipzig, Germany
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Abstract
The basal ganglia (BG) play an important role in motor control, reinforcement learning, and perceptual decision making. Modeling and experimental evidence suggest that, in a speed-accuracy tradeoff, the corticostriatal pathway can adaptively adjust a decision threshold (the amount of information needed to make a choice). In this study, we go beyond the focus of previous works on the direct and hyperdirect pathways to examine the contribution of the indirect pathway of the BG system to decision making in a biophysically based spiking network model. We find that the mechanism of adjusting the decision threshold by plasticity of the corticostriatal connections is effective, provided that the indirect pathway counterbalances the direct pathway in their projections to the output nucleus. Furthermore, in our model, changes within basal ganglia connections similar to those that arise in parkinsonism give rise to strong beta oscillations. Specifically, beta oscillations are produced by an abnormal enhancement of the interactions between the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and the external segment of globus pallidus (GPe) in the indirect pathway, with an oscillation frequency that depends on the excitatory cortical input to the STN and the inhibitory input to the GPe from the striatum. In a parkinsonian state characterized by pronounced beta oscillations, the mean reaction time and range of threshold variation (a measure of behavioral flexibility) are significantly reduced compared with the normal state. Our work thus reveals a specific circuit mechanism for impairments of perceptual decision making associated with Parkinson's disease.
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Evidence accumulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the role of uncertainty and monetary reward on perceptual decision-making thresholds. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:1192-202. [PMID: 25425323 PMCID: PMC4349497 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The compulsive behaviour underlying obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may be related to abnormalities in decision-making. The inability to commit to ultimate decisions, for example, patients unable to decide whether their hands are sufficiently clean, may reflect failures in accumulating sufficient evidence before a decision. Here we investigate the process of evidence accumulation in OCD in perceptual discrimination, hypothesizing enhanced evidence accumulation relative to healthy volunteers. Twenty-eight OCD patients and thirty-five controls were tested with a low-level visual perceptual task (random-dot-motion task, RDMT) and two response conflict control tasks. Regression analysis across different motion coherence levels and Hierarchical Drift Diffusion Modelling (HDDM) were used to characterize response strategies between groups in the RDMT. Patients required more evidence under high uncertainty perceptual contexts, as indexed by longer response time and higher decision boundaries. HDDM, which defines a decision when accumulated noisy evidence reaches a decision boundary, further showed slower drift rate towards the decision boundary reflecting poorer quality of evidence entering the decision process in patients under low uncertainty. With monetary incentives emphasizing speed and penalty for slower responses, patients decreased the decision thresholds relative to controls, accumulating less evidence in low uncertainty. These findings were unrelated to visual perceptual deficits and response conflict. This study provides evidence for impaired decision-formation processes in OCD, with a differential influence of high and low uncertainty contexts on evidence accumulation (decision threshold) and on the quality of evidence gathered (drift rates). It further emphasizes that OCD patients are sensitive to monetary incentives heightening speed in the speed-accuracy tradeoff, improving evidence accumulation.
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46
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Zavala B, Zaghloul K, Brown P. The subthalamic nucleus, oscillations, and conflict. Mov Disord 2015; 30:328-38. [PMID: 25688872 DOI: 10.1002/mds.26072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN), which is currently the most common target for deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson's disease (PD), has received increased attention over the past few years for the roles it may play in functions beyond simple motor control. In this article, we highlight several of the theoretical, interventional, and electrophysiological studies that have implicated the STN in response inhibition. Most influential among this evidence has been the reported effect of STN DBS in increasing impulsive responses in the laboratory setting. Yet, how this relates to pathological impulsivity in patients' everyday lives remains uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baltazar Zavala
- Experimental Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK; Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Frank MJ, Gagne C, Nyhus E, Masters S, Wiecki TV, Cavanagh JF, Badre D. fMRI and EEG predictors of dynamic decision parameters during human reinforcement learning. J Neurosci 2015; 35:485-94. [PMID: 25589744 PMCID: PMC4293405 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2036-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
What are the neural dynamics of choice processes during reinforcement learning? Two largely separate literatures have examined dynamics of reinforcement learning (RL) as a function of experience but assuming a static choice process, or conversely, the dynamics of choice processes in decision making but based on static decision values. Here we show that human choice processes during RL are well described by a drift diffusion model (DDM) of decision making in which the learned trial-by-trial reward values are sequentially sampled, with a choice made when the value signal crosses a decision threshold. Moreover, simultaneous fMRI and EEG recordings revealed that this decision threshold is not fixed across trials but varies as a function of activity in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and is further modulated by trial-by-trial measures of decision conflict and activity in the dorsomedial frontal cortex (pre-SMA BOLD and mediofrontal theta in EEG). These findings provide converging multimodal evidence for a model in which decision threshold in reward-based tasks is adjusted as a function of communication from pre-SMA to STN when choices differ subtly in reward values, allowing more time to choose the statistically more rewarding option.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Frank
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Brown Institute for Brain Science, Providence, Rhode Island 09212, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912,
| | - Chris Gagne
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Erika Nyhus
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine 04011, and
| | - Sean Masters
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Brown Institute for Brain Science, Providence, Rhode Island 09212
| | - Thomas V Wiecki
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Brown Institute for Brain Science, Providence, Rhode Island 09212
| | - James F Cavanagh
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131
| | - David Badre
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, Brown Institute for Brain Science, Providence, Rhode Island 09212
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Abstract
The cortico-basal-ganglia circuit plays a critical role in decision making on the basis of probabilistic information. Computational models have suggested how this circuit could compute the probabilities of actions being appropriate according to Bayes' theorem. These models predict that the subthalamic nucleus (STN) provides feedback that normalizes the neural representation of probabilities, such that if the probability of one action increases, the probabilities of all other available actions decrease. Here we report the results of an experiment testing a prediction of this theory that disrupting information processing in the STN with deep brain stimulation should abolish the normalization of the neural representation of probabilities. In our experiment, we asked patients with Parkinson's disease to saccade to a target that could appear in one of two locations, and the probability of the target appearing in each location was periodically changed. When the stimulator was switched off, the target probability affected the reaction times (RT) of patients in a similar way to healthy participants. Specifically, the RTs were shorter for more probable targets and, importantly, they were longer for the unlikely targets. When the stimulator was switched on, the patients were still faster for more probable targets, but critically they did not increase RTs as the target was becoming less likely. This pattern of results is consistent with the prediction of the model that the patients on DBS no longer normalized their neural representation of prior probabilities. We discuss alternative explanations for the data in the context of other published results.
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49
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How cognitive theory guides neuroscience. Cognition 2014; 135:14-20. [PMID: 25496988 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The field of cognitive science studies latent, unobservable cognitive processes that generate observable behaviors. Similarly, cognitive neuroscience attempts to link latent cognitive processes with the neural mechanisms that generate them. Although neural processes are partially observable (with imaging and electrophysiology), it would be a mistake to 'skip' the cognitive level and pursue a purely neuroscientific enterprise to studying behavior. In fact, virtually all of the major advances in understanding the neural basis of behavior over the last century have relied fundamentally on principles of cognition for guiding the appropriate measurements, manipulations, tasks, and interpretations. We provide several examples from the domains of episodic memory, working memory and cognitive control, and decision making in which cognitive theorizing and prior experimentation has been essential in guiding neuroscientific investigations and discoveries.
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Lead-DBS: a toolbox for deep brain stimulation electrode localizations and visualizations. Neuroimage 2014; 107:127-135. [PMID: 25498389 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 414] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine placement of electrodes after deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, a novel toolbox that facilitates both reconstruction of the lead electrode trajectory and the contact placement is introduced. Using the toolbox, electrode placement can be reconstructed and visualized based on the electrode-induced artifacts on post-operative magnetic resonance (MR) or computed tomography (CT) images. Correct electrode placement is essential for efficacious treatment with DBS. Post-operative knowledge about the placement of DBS electrode contacts and trajectories is a promising tool for clinical evaluation of DBS effects and adverse effects. It may help clinicians in identifying the best stimulation contacts based on anatomical target areas and may even shorten test stimulation protocols in the future. Fifty patients that underwent DBS surgery were analyzed in this study. After normalizing the post-operative MR/CT volumes into standard Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI)-stereotactic space, electrode leads (n=104) were detected by a novel algorithm that iteratively thresholds each axial slice and isolates the centroids of the electrode artifacts within the MR/CT-images (MR only n=32, CT only n=10, MR and CT n=8). Two patients received four, the others received two quadripolar DBS leads bilaterally, summing up to a total of 120 lead localizations. In a second reconstruction step, electrode contacts along the lead trajectories were reconstructed by using templates of electrode tips that had been manually created beforehand. Reconstructions that were made by the algorithm were finally compared to manual surveys of contact localizations. The algorithm was able to robustly accomplish lead reconstructions in an automated manner in 98% of electrodes and contact reconstructions in 69% of electrodes. Using additional subsequent manual refinement of the reconstructed contact positions, 118 of 120 electrode lead and contact reconstructions could be localized using the toolbox. Taken together, the toolbox presented here allows for a precise and fast reconstruction of DBS contacts by proposing a semi-automated procedure. Reconstruction results can be directly exported to two- and three-dimensional views that show the relationship between DBS contacts and anatomical target regions. The toolbox is made available to the public in form of an open-source MATLAB repository.
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