1
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Atance CM, Ayson G, Martin-Ordas G. Moving beyond "Spoon" tasks: When do children autocue their episodic future thought? WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2023; 14:e1646. [PMID: 37440219 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Much developmental (and comparative) research has used Tulving's Spoon test (i.e., whether an individual will select an item needed to solve a future problem) as the basis for designing tasks to measure episodic future thinking, defined as the capacity to mentally pre-experience the future. There is, however, intense debate about whether these tasks successfully do so. Most notably, it has been argued that children may pass (i.e., select an item with future utility) by drawing on non-episodic, associative processes, rather than on the capacity to represent the future, per se. Although subsequent developmental tasks have sought to address this limitation, we highlight what we argue is a more fundamental shortcoming of Spoon tasks: they prompt future-directed action making it impossible to determine whether children have used their episodic future thinking to guide their behavior. Accordingly, we know little about children's thought about the future that is independently generated (i.e., without prompting), or autocued, and is subsequently reflected (and measurable) by children's actions. We argue that this capacity is a critical, and heretofore overlooked, transition in future-oriented cognition that may not occur until middle childhood. We further hypothesize that it is reliant on children developing richer and more detailed future event representations, along with the necessary cognitive control to transform these representations into actions that serve to benefit their future selves. The time is ripe for researchers to explore this aspect of cognitive development and we suggest several novel approaches to do so. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Cognitive Development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gladys Ayson
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Gema Martin-Ordas
- Division of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
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2
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Vale GL, Coughlin C, Brosnan SF. The importance of thinking about the future in culture and cumulative cultural evolution. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210349. [PMID: 36314144 PMCID: PMC9620744 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Thinking about possibilities plays a critical role in the choices humans make throughout their lives. Despite this, the influence of individuals' ability to consider what is possible on culture has been largely overlooked. We propose that the ability to reason about future possibilities or prospective cognition, has consequences for cultural change, possibly facilitating the process of cumulative cultural evolution. In particular, by considering potential future costs and benefits of specific behaviours, prospective cognition may lead to a more flexible use of cultural behaviours. In species with limited planning abilities, this may lead to the development of cultures that promote behaviours with future benefits, circumventing this limitation. Here, we examine these ideas from a comparative perspective, considering the relationship between human and nonhuman assessments of future possibilities and their cultural capacity to invent new solutions and improve them over time. Given the methodological difficulties of assessing prospective cognition across species, we focus on planning, for which we have the most data in other species. Elucidating the role of prospective cognition in culture will help us understand the variability in when and how we see culture expressed, informing ongoing debates, such as that surrounding which social learning mechanisms underlie culture. This article is part of the theme issue 'Thinking about possibilities: mechanisms, ontogeny, functions and phylogeny'.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. L. Vale
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
- Department of Psychology, Language Research Center, Neuroscience Institute and Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302-5010, USA
| | - C. Coughlin
- Center for Learning and Memory, University of Texas at Austin, 100 East 24th Street, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - S. F. Brosnan
- Department of Psychology, Language Research Center, Neuroscience Institute and Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302-5010, USA
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3
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Tsui ASM, Atance CM. Young Children’s Saving and Their Episodic Future Thinking. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2022.2156516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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4
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Mazachowsky TR, Atance CM, Rutt JL, Mahy CEV. Verbal Explanations and Item Choices as Joint Indices of Children’s Episodic Foresight. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2022.2110874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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5
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Taylor AH, Bastos APM, Brown RL, Allen C. The signature-testing approach to mapping biological and artificial intelligences. Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:738-750. [PMID: 35773138 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Making inferences from behaviour to cognition is problematic due to a many-to-one mapping problem, in which any one behaviour can be generated by multiple possible cognitive processes. Attempts to cross this inferential gap when comparing human intelligence to that of animals or machines can generate great debate. Here, we discuss the challenges of making comparisons using 'success-testing' approaches and call attention to an alternate experimental framework, the 'signature-testing' approach. Signature testing places the search for information-processing errors, biases, and other patterns centre stage, rather than focussing predominantly on problem-solving success. We highlight current research on both biological and artificial intelligence that fits within this framework and is creating proactive research programs that make strong inferences about the similarities and differences between the content of human, animal, and machine minds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H Taylor
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
| | - Amalia P M Bastos
- School of Psychology, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Rachael L Brown
- School of Philosophy, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia
| | - Colin Allen
- Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh, 1101 Cathedral of Learning, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
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6
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Boeckle M, Schiestl M, Frohnwieser A, Gruber R, Miller R, Suddendorf T, Gray RD, Taylor AH, Clayton NS. New Caledonian crows' planning behaviour: a reply to de Mahy et al. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211271. [PMID: 34465241 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M Boeckle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Scientific Working Group, Die offene Tür (The open door), Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems, Austria.,Department of Psychiatry for Adults, University Hospital Tulln, Tulln, Austria
| | - M Schiestl
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - A Frohnwieser
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - R Gruber
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - R Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - T Suddendorf
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - R D Gray
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - A H Taylor
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - N S Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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7
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Boeckle M, Schiestl M, Frohnwieser A, Gruber R, Miller R, Suddendorf T, Gray RD, Taylor AH, Clayton NS. New Caledonian crows plan for specific future tool use. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201490. [PMID: 33143583 PMCID: PMC7735258 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to plan for future events is one of the defining features of human intelligence. Whether non-human animals can plan for specific future situations remains contentious: despite a sustained research effort over the last two decades, there is still no consensus on this question. Here, we show that New Caledonian crows can use tools to plan for specific future events. Crows learned a temporal sequence where they were (a) shown a baited apparatus, (b) 5 min later given a choice of five objects and (c) 10 min later given access to the apparatus. At test, these crows were presented with one of two tool-apparatus combinations. For each combination, the crows chose the right tool for the right future task, while ignoring previously useful tools and a low-value food item. This study establishes that planning for specific future tool use can evolve via convergent evolution, given that corvids and humans shared a common ancestor over 300 million years ago, and offers a route to mapping the planning capacities of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Boeckle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Tulln, Tulln, Austria
| | - M Schiestl
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - A Frohnwieser
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - R Gruber
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - R Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - T Suddendorf
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - R D Gray
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - A H Taylor
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - N S Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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8
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Abstract
Experimental psychologist Jonathan Crystal and evolutionary psychologist Thomas Suddendorf debate with nonhuman animals experience human-like episodic memory.
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9
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Bastos APM, Taylor AH. Macphail’s Null Hypothesis of Vertebrate Intelligence: Insights From Avian Cognition. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1692. [PMID: 32733351 PMCID: PMC7360938 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Macphail famously criticized two foundational assumptions that underlie the evolutionary approach to comparative psychology: that there are differences in intelligence across species, and that intelligent behavior in animals is based on more than associative learning. Here, we provide evidence from recent work in avian cognition that supports both these assumptions: intelligence across species varies, and animals can perform intelligent behaviors that are not guided solely by associative learning mechanisms. Finally, we reflect on the limitations of comparative psychology that led to Macphail’s claims and suggest strategies researchers can use to make more advances in the field.
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10
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Martin-Ordas G. It is about time: Conceptual and experimental evaluation of the temporal cognitive mechanisms in mental time travel. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2020; 11:e1530. [PMID: 32338829 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Mental time travel (MTT) is the ability that allows humans to mentally project themselves backwards in time to remember past events (i.e., episodic memory) or forwards in time to imagine future events (i.e., future thinking). Despite empirical evidence showing that animals might possess MTT abilities, some still claim that this ability is uniquely human. Recent debates have suggested that it is the temporal cognitive mechanism (i.e., ability to represent the sense of past and future) that makes MTT uniquely human. Advances in the field have been constrained by a lack of comparative data, methodological shortcomings that prevent meaningful comparisons, and a lack of clear conceptualizations of the temporal cognitive mechanism. Here I will present a comprehensive review into MTT in humans and animals-with a particular focus on great apes. I will examine three of the most prominent and influential theoretical models of human MTT. Drawing on these accounts, I suggest that a basic way of understanding time might be shared across species, however culture and language will play a critical role at shaping the way we elaborate mental representations about past and future events. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Psychology > Comparative Psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Martin-Ordas
- Division of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
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11
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Martin-Ordas G. What Human Planning Can Tell Us About Animal Planning: An Empirical Case. Front Psychol 2020; 11:635. [PMID: 32308638 PMCID: PMC7145970 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to think about and plan for the future is a critical cognitive skill for our daily life. There is ongoing debate about whether other animals possess future thinking. Part of the difficulty in resolving this debate is that there is not a definite methodology that allow us to conclude that animals (and human children) are truly thinking about a future event. Research with humans-both children and adults- will benefit the field of comparative psychology by providing information about the range of humans' responses when they are faced with problems similar to those presented to other animals. Inspired by a problem that chimpanzees experienced in the wild, children of 4 and 5 years of age and young adults were presented with a situation in which they were expected to select two tools in order to obtain a reward. More older children than 4 years old successfully obtained the reward. Adults also succeeded at solving the problem. However, both children and adults struggled to select the two correct tools before any tool-use action was executed. While children's performance is discussed in the context of temporal components required to envisage future events, adults' performance is interpreted in the context of cognitive effort. These findings link developmental and adult cognition with comparative psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Martin-Ordas
- Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
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12
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Miller R, Frohnwieser A, Ding N, Troisi CA, Schiestl M, Gruber R, Taylor AH, Jelbert SA, Boeckle M, Clayton NS. A novel test of flexible planning in relation to executive function and language in young children. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192015. [PMID: 32431882 PMCID: PMC7211888 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In adult humans, decisions involving the choice and use of tools for future events typically require episodic foresight. Previous studies suggest some non-human species are capable of future planning; however, these experiments often cannot fully exclude alternative learning explanations. Here, we used a novel tool-use paradigm aiming to address these critiques to test flexible planning in 3- to 5-year-old children, in relation to executive function and language abilities. In the flexible planning task, children were not verbally cued during testing, single trials avoided consistent exposure to stimulus-reward relationships, and training trials provided experience of a predictable return of reward. Furthermore, unlike most standard developmental studies, we incorporated short delays before and after tool choice. The critical test choice included two tools with equal prior reward experience-each only functional in one apparatus. We tested executive function and language abilities using several standardized tasks. Our results echoed standard developmental research: 4- and 5-year-olds outperformed 3-year-olds on the flexible planning task, and 5-year-old children outperformed younger children in most executive function and language tasks. Flexible planning performance did not correlate with executive function and language performance. This paradigm could be used to investigate flexible planning in a tool-use context in non-human species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Anna Frohnwieser
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ning Ding
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Camille A. Troisi
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Martina Schiestl
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Romana Gruber
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alex H. Taylor
- School of Psychology, Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Sarah A. Jelbert
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, St Pölten, Austria
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13
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Abstract
Children's future-oriented cognition has become a well-established area of research over the last decade. Future-oriented cognition encompasses a range of processes, including those involved in conceiving the future, imagining and preparing for future events, and making decisions that will affect how the future unfolds. We consider recent empirical advances in the study of such processes by outlining key findings that have yielded a clearer picture of how future thinking emerges and changes over childhood. Our interest in future thinking stems from a broader interest in temporal cognition, and we argue that a consideration of developmental changes in how children understand and represent time itself provides a valuable framework in which to study future-oriented cognition.
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14
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Miller R, Gruber R, Frohnwieser A, Schiestl M, Jelbert SA, Gray RD, Boeckle M, Taylor AH, Clayton NS. Decision-making flexibility in New Caledonian crows, young children and adult humans in a multi-dimensional tool-use task. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0219874. [PMID: 32160191 PMCID: PMC7065838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to make profitable decisions in natural foraging contexts may be influenced by an additional requirement of tool-use, due to increased levels of relational complexity and additional work-effort imposed by tool-use, compared with simply choosing between an immediate and delayed food item. We examined the flexibility for making the most profitable decisions in a multi-dimensional tool-use task, involving different apparatuses, tools and rewards of varying quality, in 3-5-year-old children, adult humans and tool-making New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides). We also compared our results to previous studies on habitually tool-making orangutans (Pongo abelii) and non-tool-making Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana). Adult humans, cockatoos and crows, but not children and orangutans, did not select a tool when it was not necessary, which was the more profitable choice in this situation. Adult humans, orangutans and cockatoos, but not crows and children, were able to refrain from selecting non-functional tools. By contrast, the birds, but not the primates tested, struggled to attend to multiple variables-where two apparatuses, two tools and two reward qualities were presented simultaneously-without extended experience. These findings indicate: (1) in a similar manner to humans and orangutans, New Caledonian crows and Goffin's cockatoos can flexibly make profitable decisions in some decision-making tool-use tasks, though the birds may struggle when tasks become more complex; (2) children and orangutans may have a bias to use tools in situations where adults and other tool-making species do not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (RM); (AF)
| | - Romana Gruber
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland Central, New Zealand
| | - Anna Frohnwieser
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (RM); (AF)
| | - Martina Schiestl
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland Central, New Zealand
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Max Planck Society, Jena, Germany
| | - Sarah A. Jelbert
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, England, United Kingdom
| | - Russell D. Gray
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland Central, New Zealand
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Max Planck Society, Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
| | - Alex H. Taylor
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland Central, New Zealand
| | - Nicola S. Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom
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15
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Redshaw J, Suddendorf T. Temporal Junctures in the Mind. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 24:52-64. [PMID: 31870541 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 10/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Humans can imagine what happened in the past and what will happen in the future, but also what did not happen and what might happen. We reflect on envisioned events from alternative timelines, while knowing that we only ever live on one timeline. Considering alternative timelines rests on representations of temporal junctures, or points in time at which possible versions of reality diverge. These representations become increasingly sophisticated over childhood, first enabling preparation for mutually exclusive future possibilities and later the experience of counterfactual emotions like regret. By contrast, it remains unclear whether non-human animals represent temporal junctures at all. The emergence of these representations may have been a prime mover in human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Redshaw
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Thomas Suddendorf
- School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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16
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Gautam S, Suddendorf T, Henry JD, Redshaw J. A taxonomy of mental time travel and counterfactual thought: Insights from cognitive development. Behav Brain Res 2019; 374:112108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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17
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Wilkins C, Clayton N. Reflections on the spoon test. Neuropsychologia 2019; 134:107221. [PMID: 31586552 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we shall use Tulving's seminal empirical and theoretical research including the 'Spoon Test' to explore memory and mental time travel and its origins and role in planning for the future. We will review the comparative research on future planning and episodic foresight in pre-verbal children and non-verbal animals to explore how this may be manifest as wordless thoughts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clive Wilkins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Nicola Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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18
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Atance CM, Celebi SN, Mitchinson S, Mahy CEV. Thinking about the future: Comparing children's forced-choice versus "generative" responses in the "spoon test". J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 181:1-16. [PMID: 30690296 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
One of the most popular methods to assess children's foresight is to present children with a problem (e.g., locked box with no key) in one room and then later, in another room, give them the opportunity to select the item (e.g., key) that will solve it. Whether or not children choose the correct item to bring back to the first room is the dependent measure of interest in this "spoon test." Although children as young as 3 or 4 years typically succeed on this test, whether they would pass a more stringent version in which they must verbally generate (vs. select) the correct item in the absence of any cues is unknown. This is an important point given that humans must often make decisions about the future without being explicitly "prompted" by the future-oriented option. In Experiment 1, using an adapted version of the spoon test, we show that as the "generative" requirements of the task increase, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds' (N = 99) performance significantly decreases. We replicate this effect in Experiment 2 (N = 48 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds) and also provide preliminary evidence that the capacity to verbally generate the correct item in a spoon test may draw more heavily on children's category fluency skills than does their capacity to select this item among a set of distracters. Our findings underscore the importance of examining more generative forms of future thought in young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Atance
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada.
| | - Seyda Nur Celebi
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Sarah Mitchinson
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Caitlin E V Mahy
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
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19
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An Updated Theoretical Framework for Human Sexual Selection: from Ecology, Genetics, and Life History to Extended Phenotypes. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-018-0103-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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