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Axelman J, Aldrich A, Duquesne S, Backhaus T, Brendel S, Focks A, Holz S, Knillmann S, Pieper S, Silva E, Schmied-Tobies M, Topping CJ, Wipfler L, Williams J, Sousa JP. A systems-based analysis to rethink the European environmental risk assessment of regulated chemicals using pesticides as a pilot case. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 948:174526. [PMID: 38972402 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
A growing body of scientific literature stresses the need to advance current environmental risk assessment (ERA) methodologies and associated regulatory frameworks to better address the landscape-scale and long-term impact of pesticide use on biodiversity and the ecosystem. Moreover, more collaborative and integrative approaches are needed to meet sustainability goals. The One Health approach is increasingly applied by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to support the transition towards safer, healthier and more sustainable food. To this end, EFSA commissioned the development of a roadmap for action to establish a European Partnership for next-generation, systems-based Environmental Risk Assessment (PERA). Here, we summarise the main conclusions and recommendations reported in the 2022 PERA Roadmap. This roadmap highlights that fragmentation of data, knowledge and expertise across regulatory sectors results in suboptimal processes and hinders the implementation of integrative ERA approaches needed to better protect the environment. To advance ERA, we revisited the underlying assumptions of the current ERA paradigm; that chemical risks are generally assessed and managed in isolation with a substance-by-substance, realistic worst-case and tiered approach. We suggest optimising the use of the vast amount of information and expertise available with pesticides as a pilot area. It is recommended to as soon as possible adopt a systems-based approach, i.e. within the current regulatory framework, to spark a step-wise transition towards an ERA framed at a system level of ecological and societal relevance. Tangible systems-based and integrative steps are available. For instance, the rich sources of existing data for prospective and retrospective ERA of pesticides could be used to reality-benchmark existing and new ERA methods. To achieve these goals, collaboration among stakeholders across scientific disciplines and regulatory sectors must be strengthened.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Thomas Backhaus
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Sheila Holz
- Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | | | - Emilia Silva
- LEAF Research Centre, Associate Laboratory TERRA Institute Superior of Agronomy, University of Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | | | | | | | - José Paulo Sousa
- Centre for Functional Ecology, Associate Laboratory TERRA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Portugal
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2
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Siviter H, DeVore J, Gray LK, Ivers NA, Lopez EA, Riddington IM, Stuligross C, Jha S, Muth F. A novel pesticide has lethal consequences for an important pollinator. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 952:175935. [PMID: 39218110 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 08/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Wild bees pollinate crops and wildflowers where they are frequently exposed to pesticides. Neonicotinoids are the most commonly used insecticide globally, but restrictions on their use and rising pest resistance have increased the demand for alternative pesticides. Flupyradifurone is a novel insecticide that has been licenced globally for use on bee-visited crops. Here, in a semi-field experiment, we exposed solitary bees (Osmia lignaria) to a commercial pesticide formulation (Sivanto Prime) containing flupyradifurone at label-recommended rates. We originally designed the experiment to examine sublethal effects, but contrary to our expectations, 100 % of bees released into pesticide-treated cages died within 3 days of exposure, compared to 0 % in control plots. Bees exposed to flupyradifurone a few days after the initial application survived but endured prolonged sublethal effects, including lower nesting success, impairment to foraging efficiency, and higher mortality. These results demonstrate that exposure to this novel insecticide poses significant threats to solitary bees and add to a growing body of evidence indicating that this pesticide can have negative impacts on wild bees at field-realistic concentrations. In the short-term, we recommend that commercial formulations containing flupyradifurone should be restricted to non-flowering crops while a reassessment of its safety can be conducted. In the long-term, environmental risk assessors should continue to develop risk assessments that are truly holistic and incorporate the ecological and life history traits of multiple pollinator species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry Siviter
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA; School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK.
| | - Jennie DeVore
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Lily K Gray
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Nicholas A Ivers
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, 547 ASI Bldg., University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Lopez
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Ian M Riddington
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, 105 E 24(th) St., Austin, TX 78712-1224, USA
| | - Clara Stuligross
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA; Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Shalene Jha
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, Austin, TX 78739, USA
| | - Felicity Muth
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, 196 Briggs Hall, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Frizzera D, Zanni V, Seffin E, de Miranda JR, Marroni F, Annoscia D, Nazzi F. Assessing lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on honey bees in a multifactorial context. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 948:174892. [PMID: 39034005 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
The registration of novel pesticides that are subsequently banned because of their unexpected negative effects on non-target species can have a huge environmental impact. Therefore, the pre-emptive evaluation of the potential effects of new compounds is essential. To this aim both lethal and sublethal effects should be assessed in a realistic scenario including the other stressors that can interact with pesticides. However, laboratory studies addressing such interactive effects are rare, while standardized laboratory-based protocols focus on lethal effects and not on sub-lethal effects. We propose to assess both lethal and sublethal effects in a multifactorial context including the other stressors affecting the non-target species. We tested this approach by studying the impact on honey bees of the insecticide sulfoxaflor in combination with a common parasite, a sub-optimal temperature and food deprivation. We studied the survival and the transcriptome of honey bees, to assess both the lethal and the potential sublethal effects of the insecticide, respectively. With this method we show that a field realistic concentration of sulfoxaflor in food does not affect the survival of honey bees; however, the significant impact on some key genes indicates that sublethal effects are possible in a realistically complex scenario. Moreover, our results demonstrate the feasibility and reliability of a novel approach to hazard assessment considering the interactive effects of pesticides. We anticipate our approach to be a starting point for a paradigm shift in toxicology: from an unifactorial, mortality-centered assessment to a multifactorial, comprehensive approach. This is something of the utmost importance to preserve pollination, thus contributing to the sustainability of our food production system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Frizzera
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Virginia Zanni
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Elisa Seffin
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | | | - Fabio Marroni
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Desiderato Annoscia
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Francesco Nazzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy.
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4
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Gray LK, Hulsey M, Siviter H. A novel insecticide impairs bumblebee memory and sucrose responsiveness across high and low nutrition. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231798. [PMID: 38721128 PMCID: PMC11076119 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Wild bees are important pollinators of crops and wildflowers but are exposed to a myriad of different anthropogenic stressors, such as pesticides and poor nutrition, as a consequence of intensive agriculture. These stressors do not act in isolation, but interact, and may exacerbate one another. Here, we assessed whether a field-realistic concentration of flupyradifurone, a novel pesticide that has been labelled as 'bee safe' by regulators, influenced bumblebee sucrose responsiveness and long-term memory. In a fully crossed experimental design, we exposed individual bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) to flupyradifurone at high (50% (w/w)) or low (15% (w/w)) sucrose concentrations, replicating diets that are either carbohydrate rich or poor, respectively. We found that flupyradifurone impaired sucrose responsiveness and long-term memory at both sucrose concentrations, indicating that better nutrition did not buffer the negative impact of flupyradifurone. We found no individual impact of sugar deficiency on bee behaviour and no significant interactions between pesticide exposure and poor nutrition. Our results add to a growing body of evidence demonstrating that flupyradifurone has significant negative impacts on pollinators, indicating that this pesticide is not 'bee safe'. This suggests that agrochemical risk assessments are not protecting pollinators from the unintended consequences of pesticide use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily K. Gray
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712, USA
| | - Marcus Hulsey
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712, USA
- University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK73019, USA
| | - Harry Siviter
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TQ, UK
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Raine NE, Rundlöf M. Pesticide Exposure and Effects on Non- Apis Bees. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2024; 69:551-576. [PMID: 37827173 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-040323-020625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Bees are essential pollinators of many crops and wild plants, and pesticide exposure is one of the key environmental stressors affecting their health in anthropogenically modified landscapes. Until recently, almost all information on routes and impacts of pesticide exposure came from honey bees, at least partially because they were the only model species required for environmental risk assessments (ERAs) for insect pollinators. Recently, there has been a surge in research activity focusing on pesticide exposure and effects for non-Apis bees, including other social bees (bumble bees and stingless bees) and solitary bees. These taxa vary substantially from honey bees and one another in several important ecological traits, including spatial and temporal activity patterns, foraging and nesting requirements, and degree of sociality. In this article, we review the current evidence base about pesticide exposure pathways and the consequences of exposure for non-Apis bees. We find that the insights into non-Apis bee pesticide exposure and resulting impacts across biological organizations, landscapes, mixtures, and multiple stressors are still in their infancy. The good news is that there are many promising approaches that could be used to advance our understanding, with priority given to informing exposure pathways, extrapolating effects, and determining how well our current insights (limited to very few species and mostly neonicotinoid insecticides under unrealistic conditions) can be generalized to the diversity of species and lifestyles in the global bee community. We conclude that future research to expand our knowledge would also be beneficial for ERAs and wider policy decisions concerning pollinator conservation and pesticide regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel E Raine
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada;
| | - Maj Rundlöf
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden;
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6
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Jütte T, Wernecke A, Klaus F, Pistorius J, Dietzsch AC. Risk assessment requires several bee species to address species-specific sensitivity to insecticides at field-realistic concentrations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22533. [PMID: 38110412 PMCID: PMC10728145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48818-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In the European registration process, pesticides are currently mainly tested on the honey bee. Since sensitivity data for other bee species are lacking for the majority of xenobiotics, it is unclear if and to which extent this model species can adequately serve as surrogate for all wild bees. Here, we investigated the effects of field-realistic contact exposure to a pyrethroid insecticide, containing lambda-cyhalothrin, on seven bee species (Andrena vaga, Bombus terrestris, Colletes cunicularius, Osmia bicornis, Osmia cornuta, Megachile rotundata, Apis mellifera) with different life history characteristics in a series of laboratory trials over two years. Our results on sensitivity showed significant species-specific responses to the pesticide at a field-realistic application rate (i.e., 7.5 g a.s./ha). Species did not group into distinct classes of high and low mortality. Bumble bee and mason bee survival was the least affected by the insecticide, and M. rotundata survival was the most affected with all individuals dead 48 h after application. Apis mellifera showed medium mortality compared to the other bee species. Most sublethal effects, i.e. behavioral abnormalities, were observed within the first hours after application. In some of the solitary species, for example O. bicornis and A. vaga, a higher percentage of individuals performed some abnormal behavior for longer until the end of the observation period. While individual bee weight explained some of the observed mortality patterns, differences are likely linked to additional ecological, phylogenetic or toxicogenomic parameters as well. Our results support the idea that honey bee data can be substitute for some bee species' sensitivity and may justify the usage of safety factors. To adequately cover more sensitive species, a larger set of bee species should be considered for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Jütte
- Institute for Bee Protection, Julius Kuehn-Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Anna Wernecke
- Institute for Bee Protection, Julius Kuehn-Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Felix Klaus
- Institute for Bee Protection, Julius Kuehn-Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jens Pistorius
- Institute for Bee Protection, Julius Kuehn-Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Anke C Dietzsch
- Institute for Bee Protection, Julius Kuehn-Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany
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7
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Fischer LR, Ramesh D, Weidenmüller A. Sub-lethal but potentially devastating - The novel insecticide flupyradifurone impairs collective brood care in bumblebees. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166097. [PMID: 37562619 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
The worldwide decline in pollinating insects is alarming. One of the main anthropogenic drivers is the massive use of pesticides in agriculture. Risk assessment procedures test pesticides for mortality rates of well-fed, parasite free individuals of a few non-target species. Sublethal and synergistic effects of co-occurring stressors are usually not addressed. Here, we present a simple, wildly applicable bio-essay to assess such effects. Using brood thermoregulation in bumblebee microcolonies as readout, we investigate how this collective ability is affected by long-term feeding exposure to the herbicide glyphosate (5 mg/l), the insecticide flupyradifurone (0.4 mg/l) and the combination of both, when co-occurring with the natural stressor of resource limitation. Documenting brood temperature and development in 53 microcolonies we find no significant effect of glyphosate, while flupyradifurone significantly impaired the collective ability to maintain the necessary brood temperatures, resulting in prolonged developmental times and a decrease in colony growth by over 50 %. This reduction in colony growth has the potential to significantly curtail the reproductive chances of colonies in the field. Our findings highlight the potentially devastating consequences of flupyradifurone use in agriculture even at sub-lethal doses and underline the urgent need for improved risk assessment procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana R Fischer
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, Konstanz, Germany; School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, UK.
| | - Divya Ramesh
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, Konstanz, Germany; University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Anja Weidenmüller
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, Konstanz, Germany; University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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Schöfer N, Ackermann J, Hoheneder J, Hofferberth J, Ruther J. Sublethal Effects of Four Insecticides Targeting Cholinergic Neurons on Partner and Host Finding in the Parasitic Wasp Nasonia vitripennis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023; 42:2400-2411. [PMID: 37477474 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on nontarget organisms are one of the causes of the current decline of many insect species. However, research in the past decades has focused primarily on pollinators, although other beneficial nontarget organisms such as parasitic wasps may also be affected. We studied the sublethal effects of the four insecticides acetamiprid, dimethoate, flupyradifurone, and sulfoxaflor on pheromone-mediated sexual communication and olfactory host finding of the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis. All agents target cholinergic neurons, which are involved in the processing of chemical information by insects. We applied insecticide doses topically and tested the response of treated wasps to sex pheromones and host-associated chemical cues. In addition, we investigated the mating rate of insecticide-treated wasps. The pheromone response of females surviving insecticide treatment was disrupted by acetamiprid (≥0.63 ng), dimethoate (≥0.105 ng), and flupyradifurone (≥21 ng), whereas sulfoxaflor had no significant effects at the tested doses. Olfactory host finding was affected by all insecticides (acetamiprid ≥1.05 ng, dimethoate ≥0.105 ng, flupyradifurone ≥5.25 ng, sulfoxaflor ≥0.52 ng). Remarkably, females treated with ≥0.21 ng dimethoate even avoided host odor. The mating rate of treated N. vitripennis couples was decreased by acetamiprid (6.3 ng), flupyradifurone (≥2.63 ng), and sulfoxaflor (2.63 ng), whereas dimethoate showed only minor effects. Finally, we determined the amount of artificial nectar consumed by N. vitripennis females within 48 h. Considering this amount (∼2 µL) and the maximum concentrations of the insecticides reported in nectar, tested doses can be considered field-realistic. Our results suggest that exposure of parasitic wasps to field-realistic doses of insecticides targeting the cholinergic system reduces their effectiveness as natural enemies by impairing the olfactory sense. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:2400-2411. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Schöfer
- Institute of Zoology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julian Ackermann
- Institute of Zoology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julian Hoheneder
- Institute of Zoology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Joachim Ruther
- Institute of Zoology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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9
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Albacete S, Sancho G, Azpiazu C, Rodrigo A, Molowny-Horas R, Sgolastra F, Bosch J. Bees exposed to climate change are more sensitive to pesticides. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:6248-6260. [PMID: 37656005 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Bee populations are exposed to multiple stressors, including land-use change, biological invasions, climate change, and pesticide exposure, that may interact synergistically. We analyze the combined effects of climate warming and sublethal insecticide exposure in the solitary bee Osmia cornuta. Previous Osmia studies show that warm wintering temperatures cause body weight loss, lipid consumption, and fat body depletion. Because the fat body plays a key role in xenobiotic detoxification, we expected that bees exposed to climate warming scenarios would be more sensitive to pesticides. We exposed O. cornuta females to three wintering treatments: current scenario (2007-2012 temperatures), near-future (2021-2050 projected temperatures), and distant-future (2051-2080). Upon emergence in spring, bees were orally exposed to three sublethal doses of an insecticide (Closer, a.i. sulfoxaflor; 0, 4.55 and 11.64 ng a.i./bee). We measured the combined effects of wintering and insecticide exposure on phototactic response, syrup consumption, and longevity. Wintering treatment by itself did not affect winter mortality, but body weight loss increased with increasing wintering temperatures. Similarly, wintering treatment by itself hardly influenced phototactic response or syrup consumption. However, bees wintered at the warmest temperatures had shorter longevity, a strong fecundity predictor in Osmia. Insecticide exposure, especially at the high dose, impaired the ability of bees to respond to light, and resulted in reduced syrup consumption and longevity. The combination of the warmest winter and the high insecticide dose resulted in a 70% longevity decrease. Smaller bees, resulting from smaller pollen-nectar provisions, had shorter longevity suggesting nutritional stress may further compromise fecundity in O. cornuta. Our results show a synergistic interaction between two major drivers of bee declines, and indicate that bees will become more sensitive to pesticides under the current global warming scenario. Our findings have important implications for pesticide regulation and underscore the need to consider multiple stressors to understand bee declines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Albacete
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Sancho
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Celeste Azpiazu
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anselm Rodrigo
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Roberto Molowny-Horas
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Fabio Sgolastra
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Agro-Alimentari, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jordi Bosch
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra, Spain
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