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Dabla PK, Upreti K, Singh D, Singh A, Sharma J, Dabas A, Gruson D, Gouget B, Bernardini S, Homsak E, Stankovic S. Target association rule mining to explore novel paediatric illness patterns in emergency settings. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2022; 82:595-600. [PMID: 36399102 DOI: 10.1080/00365513.2022.2148121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS To assess the hospitalized sick children admitted to the pediatric emergency department (ED) and to find new patterns of clinical and laboratory attributes using association rule mining (ARM). METHODS In this observational study, 158 children with median (IQR) age 11 months and a PRISM III score of 5 (2-9) were enrolled. Hotspot data mining method was applied to assess clinical attributes, lab investigations and pre-defined outcome parameters of children and their association in sick hospitalized children aged 1 month to 12 years. RESULTS We obtained 30 rules with value for outcome as discharge is given attributes as follows: duration of hospitalization > 4 days, lactate > 1.2 mmol/L, platelet = 3.67/μL, dur_ventil = 0 h, serum K = 5.2 mmol/L, SBP = 120 mmHg, pCO2 = 41.9 mmHg, PaO2 = 163 mmHg, age = 92 months, heart rate > 114-159 per minute, temperature > 98 °F, GCS (Glasgow Coma Scale) > 7-14, gas K = 4.14 mmol/L, gas Na = 138.1 mmol/L, BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) = 18.69 mg/dL, Diagnosis > 1-718, Creatinine = 1.2 mg/dL, serum Na = 148 mmol/L, shock = 2, Glucose = 144 mg/dL, Mg(i) > 0.23 meq/L, BUN > 6.54 mg/dL. CONCLUSION ARM is an effective data analysis technique to find meaningful patterns using clinical features with actual numbers in pediatric critical illness. It can prove to be important while analysing the association of clinical attributes with disease pattern, its features, and therapeutic or intervention success patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep Kumar Dabla
- Department of Biochemistry, G. B. Pant Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (GIPMER), Associated Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India.,Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy
| | - Kamal Upreti
- Dr. Akhilesh Das Gupta Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India
| | - Divakar Singh
- Barkatullah University Institute of Technology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | | | - Jitender Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry, G. B. Pant Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (GIPMER), Associated Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India
| | - Aashima Dabas
- Department of Pediatrics, Maulana Azad Medical College and Lok Nayak Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Damien Gruson
- Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, CliniquesUniversitaires St-Luc and UniversitéCatholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bernard Gouget
- Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy.,Healthcare Division Committee, ComitéFrançaisd'accréditation (COFRAC), National Committee for the selection of Reference Laboratories, Ministry of Health, Paris, France
| | - Sergio Bernardini
- Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy.,Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Evgenija Homsak
- Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy.,Department for Laboratory Diagnostics, University Clinical Center Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Sanja Stankovic
- Emerging Technologies Division and MHBLM Committee, International Federation Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Milano, Italy.,Center for Medical Biochemistry, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
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Rezaei B, Ramazani E, Amiri R, Sanaei Z. A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of electrolyte abnormalities in multiple trauma patients in Hamedan, Iran. Health Sci Rep 2021; 4:e239. [PMID: 33732893 PMCID: PMC7944545 DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Evaluation of electrolyte status and homeostasis is one of the most important components of evaluation and treatment of critically ill patients, especially those with multiple trauma. Electrolyte imbalance can be associated with a bad prognosis and the need of specialized consultancy. AIM The aim of this study was to evaluate and determine the electrolyte status of patients with multiple trauma and evaluate the relationship of electrolyte disorders with patient outcome. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, 370 patients who were referred to the emergency department of Besat Hospital in Hamadan, Iran with multiple trauma were studied. Demographic parameters clinical characteristics such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, consciousness score and body temperature, paraclinical characteristics including radiographic status, ultrasound, and electrocardiography and serum levels of sodium, potassium, creatinine, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and BUN and urine analysis was performed. Data regarding the discharge from emergency department or referral to other units were also complete in a questionnaire for each patient. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSSv24. RESULTS Three hundred seventy patients with multiple trauma were studied where 73% of patients were men and 27% were women. One hundred ninety-six patients were discharged from the emergency department, and 174 patients were referred to other units of the hospital. The most common electrolyte abnormalities were hypotension (62.7%), hypernatremia (9.5%), hypokalemia (6.8%), and hypercreatinine (4.6%). The results of independent t-test showed that heart rate and potassium level were significantly higher in patients referred to other units than in patients discharged from the emergency department and respiratory rate and hematocrit were significantly lower in patients referred to other units. CONCLUSION Hypotension, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hypercreatinine, and abnormal urine analysis were more frequent in patients referred to other units than in patients discharged from the emergency department. These variables can be considered in predicting patient status for referral to other units and delayed hospital discharge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bareza Rezaei
- Department of Emergency, Faculty of Medicine, Taleghani HospitalKermanshah University of Medical SciencesKermanshahIran
- Clinical Research Development Center of TaleghaniKermanshah University of Medical SciencesKermanshahIran
| | - Einaz Ramazani
- Department of Emergency, Besat HospitalHamedan University of Medical SciencesHamedanIran
| | - Rahimpour Amiri
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Besat HospitalHamedan University of Medical SciencesHamedanIran
| | - Zahra Sanaei
- Department of Community Medicine, Education Development OfficeHamedan University of Medical SciencesHamedanIran
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Gonsalez SR, Cortês AL, Silva RCD, Lowe J, Prieto MC, Silva Lara LD. Acute kidney injury overview: From basic findings to new prevention and therapy strategies. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 200:1-12. [PMID: 30959059 PMCID: PMC10134404 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined as a decrease in kidney function within hours, which encompasses both injury and impairment of renal function. AKI is not considered a pathological condition of single organ failure, but a syndrome in which the kidney plays an active role in the progression of multi-organ dysfunction. The incidence rate of AKI is increasing and becoming a common (8-16% of hospital admissions) and serious disease (four-fold increased hospital mortality) affecting public health costs worldwide. AKI also affects the young and previously healthy individuals affected by infectious diseases in Latin America. Because of the multifactorial pathophysiological mechanisms, there is no effective pharmacological therapy that prevents the evolution or reverses the injury once established; therefore, renal replacement therapy is the only current alternative available for renal patients. The awareness of an accurate and prompt recognition of AKI underlying the various clinical phenotypes is an urgent need for more effective therapeutic interventions to diminish mortality and socio-economic impacts of AKI. The use of biomarkers as an indicator of the initial stage of the disease is critical and the cornerstone to fulfill the gaps in the field. This review discusses emerging strategies from basic science toward the anticipation of features, treatment of AKI, and new treatments using pharmacological and stem cell therapies. We will also highlight bioartificial kidney studies, addressing the limitations of the development of this innovative technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Ribeiro Gonsalez
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho 373, Bloco J, sala 26, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Aline Leal Cortês
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho 373, Bloco J, sala 26, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Raquel Costa da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho 373, Bloco J, sala 26, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Jennifer Lowe
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho 373, sala I2-035, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Minolfa C Prieto
- Department of Physiology & Tulane Renal and Hypertension Center of Excellence, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Lucienne da Silva Lara
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Avenida Carlos Chagas Filho 373, Bloco J, sala 26, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-902, Brazil.
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Hu J, Wang Y, Geng X, Chen R, Xu X, Zhang X, Lin J, Teng J, Ding X. Metabolic acidosis as a risk factor for the development of acute kidney injury and hospital mortality. Exp Ther Med 2017; 13:2362-2374. [PMID: 28565850 PMCID: PMC5443206 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic acidosis has been proved to be a risk factor for the progression of chronic kidney disease, but its relation to acute kidney injury (AKI) has not been investigated. In general, a diagnosis of metabolic acidosis is based on arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis, but the diagnostic role of carbon dioxide combining power (CO2CP) in the venous blood may also be valuable to non-respiratory patients. This retrospective study included all adult non-respiratory patients admitted consecutively to our hospital between October 01, 2014 and September 30, 2015. A total of 71,089 non-respiratory patients were included, and only 4,873 patients were evaluated by ABG analysis at admission. In patients with ABG, acidosis, metabolic acidosis, decreased HCO3− and hypocapnia at admission was associated with the development of AKI, while acidosis and hypocapnia were independent predictors of hospital mortality. Among non-respiratory patients, decreased CO2CP at admission was an independent risk factor for AKI and hospital mortality. ROC curves indicated that CO2CP was a reasonable biomarker to exclude metabolic acidosis, dual and triple acid-base disturbances. The effect sizes of decreased CO2CP on AKI and hospital mortality varied according to age and different underlying diseases. Metabolic acidosis is an independent risk factor for the development of AKI and hospital mortality. In non-respiratory patient, decreased CO2CP is also an independent contributor to AKI and mortality and can be used as an indicator of metabolic acidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiachang Hu
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Yimei Wang
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Xuemei Geng
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Rongyi Chen
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Xialian Xu
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Jing Lin
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Jie Teng
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoqiang Ding
- Division of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Institute of Kidney and Dialysis, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory for Kidney and Blood Purification, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
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Balcı AK, Koksal O, Kose A, Armagan E, Ozdemir F, Inal T, Oner N. General characteristics of patients with electrolyte imbalance admitted to emergency department. World J Emerg Med 2014; 4:113-6. [PMID: 25215103 PMCID: PMC4129840 DOI: 10.5847/wjem.j.issn.1920-8642.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Fluid and electrolyte balance is a key concept to understand for maintaining homeostasis, and for a successful treatment of many metabolic disorders. There are various regulating mechanisms for the equilibrium of electrolytes in organisms. Disorders of these mechanisms result in electrolyte imbalances that may be life-threatening clinical conditions. In this study we defined the electrolyte imbalance characteristics of patients admitted to our emergency department. METHODS: This study was conducted in the Emergency Department (ED) of Uludag University Faculty of Medicine, and included 996 patients over 18 years of age. All patients had electrolyte imbalance, with various etiologies other than traumatic origin. Demographic and clinical parameters were collected after obtaining informed consent from the patients. The ethical committee of the university approved this study. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 59.28±16.79, and 55% of the patients were male. The common symptoms of the patients were dyspnea (14.7%), fever (13.7%), and systemic deterioration (11.9%); but the most and least frequent electrolyte imbalances were hyponatremia and hypermagnesemia, respectively. Most frequent findings in physical examination were confusion (14%), edema (10%) and rales (9%); and most frequent pathological findings in ECG were tachycardia in 24%, and atrial fibrillation in 7% of the patients. Most frequent comorbidity was malignancy (39%). Most frequent diagnoses in the patients were sepsis (11%), pneumonia (9%), and acute renal failure (7%). CONCLUSIONS: Electrolyte imbalances are of particular importance in the treatment of ED patients. Therefore, ED physicians must be acknowledged of their fluid-electrolyte balance dynamics and general characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Kadri Balcı
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Ozlem Koksal
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Ataman Kose
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Erol Armagan
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Fatma Ozdemir
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Taylan Inal
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Nuran Oner
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
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Kiarie E, Bhandari S, Scott M, Krause DO, Nyachoti CM. Growth performance and gastrointestinal microbial ecology responses of piglets receiving Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation products after an oral challenge with Escherichia coli (K88). J Anim Sci 2010; 89:1062-78. [PMID: 21148775 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2010-3424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation products (YFP) on growth performance and gastrointestinal (GIT) microbial ecology in 90 weanling pigs orally challenged with Escherichia coli K88(+) (ETEC) were investigated. The YFP were an original YFP product (XPC) and a water-suspendable yeast fermentation prototype (WSYFP) from a commercial company. Treatments consisted of a negative control (NC, no in-feed or in-water additive), carbadox (AB, 55 mg of carbadox/kg of feed), XPC (in feed, 0.2%), and WSYFP (in water, 0.5, 1, or 2 g/pig per day), and each was allotted to 5 pens (3 pigs/pen). The diets met the 1998 NRC specifications. Pigs were acclimated to treatments for a 7-d period before an ETEC challenge. On d 8, blood was collected from pigs to determine the baseline packed cell volume (PCV) measurement, and pigs were orally challenged with ETEC. At various time points postchallenge, blood samples were taken, performance measures and fecal consistency scores were recorded, and gut digesta and tissue samples were taken to evaluate GIT morphology, microbial ecology, and metabolites. Preplanned contrasts were used for comparison. Pigs receiving YFP had greater ADFI than NC pigs on d 3 (424 vs. 378 g/d; P = 0.01) and d 7 (506 vs. 458 g/d; P = 0.03) postchallenge. This effect of YFP on ADFI was similar to that of AB on d 3, but pigs receiving AB ate more (576 vs. 506 g/d; P = 0.03) at d 7 than pigs receiving YFP. Pigs exhibited reduced (P < 0.001) PCV upon ETEC challenge; however, pigs receiving additives sustained a greater (P < 0.05) PCV at 72 h compared with the NC group. Compared with the NC pigs, pigs receiving YFP showed a smaller (P < 0.05) number of ileal mucosa adherent ETEC and prevalence of the order Enterobacteriales in the ileal digesta, which corresponded to less (5.09 vs. 6.97 mg/dL; P = 0.03) colonic ammonia on d 7 postchallenge. Most of the indices for ileal digesta bacterial richness and diversity were greater (P < 0.01) for YFP pigs compared with NC pigs. However, results also indicated that the influence of YFP on the piglet intestinal microenvironment might differ when given in feed or water during ETEC challenge. In conclusion, pigs receiving YFP showed a better appetite in the presence of ETEC, which, together with the greater ileal digesta bacteria richness and diversity and decreased ETEC adhering to the mucosa and reduced colonic ammonia, indicates a healthier GIT environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Kiarie
- Department of Animal Science, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada
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Caffrey RE. A review of experimental design best practices for proteomics based biomarker discovery: focus on SELDI-TOF. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 641:167-183. [PMID: 20407947 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-711-2_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Surface Enhanced Laser/Desorption Ionization-time of flight (SELDI-TOF) mass spectrometry is a technique uniquely suited to the study of the urine proteome due to its salt tolerance, high-throughput, and small sample requirements. However, due to the extreme sensitivity of the technique, sample collection and storage conditions, as well as instrument protocols and analysis conditions, must be rigorously controlled to ensure that data generated and collected is accurate and free from artifacts. Robust and reproducible data sets can be generated and compared between clinical sites when experimental protocols are carefully standardized. This chapter aims to review known factors that cause irreproducible results so that the experiments may be designed with appropriate sample and process controls for successful biomarker discovery. A suggested protocol follows the review. A number of issues for study design are discussed and these are generally applicable to biomarker discovery experiments.
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Bourne LT, Harmse B, Temple N. Water: a neglected nutrient in the young child? A South African perspective. MATERNAL & CHILD NUTRITION 2007; 3:303-11. [PMID: 17824858 PMCID: PMC6860666 DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00114.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Water is considered an essential nutrient because the body cannot produce enough water itself, by metabolism of food, to fulfil its need. When the quantity or quality of water is inadequate, health problems result, most notably dehydration and diarrhoea. As a result of contaminated water and poor hygiene, related infections are still a serious problem. Indeed, in the South African setting water availability and sanitation are critical issues because of the prevalence of childhood diarrhoea and also the HIV/AIDS crisis. Though considerable efforts have been made to improve the water and sanitation problems in South Africa - especially with regard to water supply infrastructure - there is still room for much improvement. Water is a healthy alternative to calorie-dense, non-nutritive beverages, such as artificial fruit drinks and soda. The latter should be avoided as they contribute little other than energy and may contribute to overweight and obesity. Also, they displace more nutritious foods from the child's diet. Consumption of fruit juice should also be limited. These issues highlight the need for a specific guideline relating to water intake in the paediatric food-based dietary guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley T Bourne
- Environmental Health Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa.
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