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Anderson K, Morrice-West AV, Walmsley EA, Fisher AD, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL. Validation of inertial measurement units to detect and predict horse behaviour while stabled. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:1128-1138. [PMID: 36537838 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Musculoskeletal injuries are observed in Thoroughbred racehorses and may become catastrophic. Currently, there are limited methods for early detection of such injuries. Most injuries develop gradually due to accumulated damage, providing the opportunity for early detection. Horses experiencing pain or lameness may exhibit changes in behaviour so the development of an objective, real-time system monitoring horse behaviour may enable detection of bone injuries before catastrophic failure. OBJECTIVES To determine whether intensive observational methods of assessing horse behaviour can be replaced by use of inertial measurement units (IMUs). STUDY DESIGN Validation study assessing IMU use against video observation. METHODS Six hospitalised Thoroughbreds (algorithm training data) and 19 Thoroughbred racehorses in-training (algorithm testing data) were equipped with an IMU placed on the lateral side of both forelimbs (left fore, LF; right fore, RF) and monitored in a stable for 4 h. An algorithm was developed to classify behaviour and then validated against video recordings. RESULTS Standing was the most prevalent behaviour (LF 88.8%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 88.7-89.0; RF 88.5%, 95% CI 88.4-88.7). IMU classification of recumbent and standing activities showed excellent agreement (sensitivity) with video observation (>98%). This was followed by stepping (LF 89.4%, RF 85.5%) then weight-shifting (LF 54.3%, RF 61.5%). Predictions from the algorithm showed misclassification of 2.5% (LF 5500/225 352, RF 5218/210 170). Excluding standing, misclassification was 6.8% (1705/25 158) and 7.5% (1812/24 077) for the left and right forelimbs, respectively, with pawing and weight-shifting most frequently misclassified. MAIN LIMITATIONS Increasing the number of horses and types of behaviours observed may improve predictions. CONCLUSIONS IMUs displayed a high sensitivity to movement on a small number of horses, and with further validation they have the potential to effectively monitor behaviour of racehorses in training. However, more sensitive methods may be needed to validate the classification of weight-shifting behaviour. Future studies should evaluate the association between each behaviour and musculoskeletal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Anderson
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashleigh V Morrice-West
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Walmsley
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew D Fisher
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - R Chris Whitton
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peta L Hitchens
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
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Noordwijk KJ, Chen L, Ruspi BD, Schurer S, Papa B, Fasanello DC, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Porter IR, Basran PS, Donnelly E, Reesink HL. Metacarpophalangeal Joint Pathology and Bone Mineral Density Increase with Exercise but Not with Incidence of Proximal Sesamoid Bone Fracture in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13050827. [PMID: 36899684 PMCID: PMC10000193 DOI: 10.3390/ani13050827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) fracture is the leading cause of fatal musculoskeletal injury in Thoroughbred racehorses in Hong Kong and the US. Efforts are underway to investigate diagnostic modalities that could help identify racehorses at increased risk of fracture; however, features associated with PSB fracture risk are still poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate third metacarpal (MC3) and PSB density and mineral content using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), computed tomography (CT), Raman spectroscopy, and ash fraction measurements, and (2) investigate PSB quality and metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) pathology using Raman spectroscopy and CT. Forelimbs were collected from 29 Thoroughbred racehorse cadavers (n = 14 PSB fracture, n = 15 control) for DXA and CT imaging, and PSBs were sectioned for Raman spectroscopy and ash fraction measurements. Bone mineral density (BMD) was greater in MC3 condyles and PSBs of horses with more high-speed furlongs. MCPJ pathology, including palmar osteochondral disease (POD), MC3 condylar sclerosis, and MC3 subchondral lysis were greater in horses with more high-speed furlongs. There were no differences in BMD or Raman parameters between fracture and control groups; however, Raman spectroscopy and ash fraction measurements revealed regional differences in PSB BMD and tissue composition. Many parameters, including MC3 and PSB bone mineral density, were strongly correlated with total high-speed furlongs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kira J. Noordwijk
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Leyi Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Bianca D. Ruspi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sydney Schurer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Brittany Papa
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Diana C. Fasanello
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sean P. McDonough
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Scott E. Palmer
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ian R. Porter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Parminder S. Basran
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Eve Donnelly
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Correspondence: (E.D.); (H.L.R.)
| | - Heidi L. Reesink
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Correspondence: (E.D.); (H.L.R.)
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3
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Nout-Lomas YS. Traumatic Nervous System Injury. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2022; 38:363-377. [PMID: 35810150 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of traumatic nervous system injury to a degree are similar, but differences exist in etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerve injury. The most common clinical abnormalities seen in the horse are abnormal level of consciousness, abnormal behavior, seizures, cranial nerve deficits, vestibular disease, tetra- and paraparesis or paraplegia, cauda equina syndrome, specific gait deficits, and muscle atrophy. Treatments are directed toward reducing inflammation and swelling, halting secondary injury, and promoting mechanisms of neuroregeneration and plasticity. Prognosis depends on the severity of primary injury and the neuroanatomic location and extent of nervous tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette S Nout-Lomas
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Johnson Family Equine Hospital, Colorado State University, 2230 Gillette Drive, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1678, USA.
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4
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Samol MA, Uzal FA, Blanchard PC, Arthur RM, Stover SM. Sudden death caused by spinal cord injury associated with vertebral fractures and fetlock failure in a Thoroughbred racehorse. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 33:788-791. [PMID: 34041971 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211018289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The most prevalent causes of death in racehorses are musculoskeletal injuries, causing ~83% of deaths within the racing industry in California and elsewhere. The vast majority of these injuries have preexisting lesions that predispose to fatal injury. A 4-y-old Thoroughbred colt suffered an acute suspensory apparatus failure, including biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures of the right front fetlock, causing loss of support of the fetlock joint and consequent fall with fractures of the cervical and sacral spine. Cervical fracture caused spinal cord damage that resulted in sudden death. A preexisting lesion in the medial proximal sesamoid bone likely predisposed to complete fracture of this bone and fetlock breakdown. Interestingly, a comparable osteopenic lesion was present in the intact medial proximal sesamoid bone of the left forelimb, which is consistent with bilateral repetitive overuse injury in racehorses. The morphologic features of the cervical and sacral spine fractures were compatible with acute injury; no evidence of preexisting lesions was seen. Most likely, these acute vertebral fractures occurred as a result of the horse falling. This case emphasizes the importance of performing a detailed autopsy in horses that suffer an appendicular musculoskeletal injury, particularly in fatal cases when the horse dies following a leg injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika A Samol
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino
| | | | - Rick M Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Susan M Stover
- Tulare, J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory
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5
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Cresswell EN, Ruspi BD, Wollman CW, Peal BT, Deng S, Toler AB, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Reesink HL. Determination of correlation of proximal sesamoid bone osteoarthritis with high-speed furlong exercise and catastrophic sesamoid bone fracture in Thoroughbred racehorses. Am J Vet Res 2021; 82:467-477. [PMID: 34032482 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.82.6.467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine whether proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) articular cartilage and bone osteoarthritic changes or palmar osteochondral disease (POD) scores were associated with exercise history and catastrophic PSB fracture in Thoroughbred racehorses. SAMPLES PSBs from 16 Thoroughbred racehorses (8 with and 8 without PSB fracture). PROCEDURES Exercise history was collected, and total career high-speed furlongs was used as the measure of total exercise per horse. At necropsy, medial and lateral condyles of the third metacarpus from each forelimb were assigned a POD score, followed by imaging with micro-CT for evaluation of osteophyte size. Three investigators that were blinded to the type of PSB (fracture or no fracture) used the Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) scoring system to evaluate acellularity, chondrocyte necrosis, cartilage fibrillation, chondrone formation, safranin O stain uptake, and tidemark advancement of 1 central sagittal tissue section/PSB (4 PSBs/horse). Cartilage thickness and bone necrosis were scored on the basis of histologic examination. RESULTS POD score, osteophyte size score, percentage of bone necrosis, tidemark advancement, chondrone formation, and total OARSI score were greater in horses with more accrued total career high-speed furlongs. Scores for POD, osteophyte size, fibrillation, acellularity, chondrone formation, and total OARSI were greater for horses with PSB fracture. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL REVELANCE OARSI scoring revealed that more advanced osteoarthritic changes strongly correlated with total career high-speed furlongs and PSB fracture. However, the effect of exercise was dominant, suggesting that exercise history will be important to include in future models that aim to assess risk factors for catastrophic PSB fracture.
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6
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Basran PS, Gao J, Palmer S, Reesink HL. A radiomics platform for computing imaging features from µCT images of Thoroughbred racehorse proximal sesamoid bones: Benchmark performance and evaluation. Equine Vet J 2020; 53:277-286. [PMID: 32654167 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) fractures are the most common fatal musculoskeletal injury in North American racehorses. Computed tomography has the potential to detect morphological changes in bone structure but can be challenging to analyse reliably and quantitatively. OBJECTIVES To develop a radiomics platform that allows the comparison of features from micro-CTs (µCT) of PSBs in horses that sustained catastrophic fractures with horses that did not. To compare features calculated with a radiomics approach with features calculated from a previously published study that used quantitative µCT in the same specimens. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective study of cadaver specimens of µCT images of PSBs using prospectively applied radiomics. METHODS Radiomics features were computed on standardised CT datasets to benchmark the software. Features from µCT images of PSBs from eight horses that sustained PSB fracture and eight controls were computed using the contralateral, intact forelimb from horses sustaining PSB fracture (cases, n = 19) and all available forelimbs for controls (n = 30). Two-hundred and fifteen radiomic features were calculated, and similar or comparable features were compared with those reported in a previous study that used the same specimens. RESULTS Morphologic features computed with the radiomics approach, such as volume, minor axis dimensions and anisotropy were highly correlated with previously published data. A high number of imperceptible radiomic features, such as entropy, coarseness and histogram features were also found to be significantly different (P < .01). The extent of the differences in image features for the cases and controls PSBs depends on radiomic calculation settings. MAIN LIMITATIONS Only datasets obtained from cadaver specimens were included in the study. CONCLUSIONS A radiomics approach for analysing µCT images of PSBs was able to identify and reproduce differences in image features in cases and controls. Furthermore, radiomics revealed many more imperceptible image features between cases and control PSBs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan Gao
- Clinical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Scott Palmer
- Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Heidi L Reesink
- Clinical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Equine and Farm Animal Hospital, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Henderson B, Bramlage LR, Koenig J, Monteith G. Postinjury performance for differing humeral stress fracture locations in the racing thoroughbred. Vet Surg 2020; 49:1412-1417. [PMID: 32678472 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the influence of humeral stress fracture location on the time to return to racing and postinjury performance of thoroughbred racehorses. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective study (1992-2015). SAMPLE POPULATION Thoroughbred racehorses (n = 131) that presented for lameness with the sole diagnosis of humeral stress fractures in the lame limb, as determined by scintigraphy or radiology. METHODS Sex, fracture site, age, starts, earnings, and average earnings per race were examined for differences in pre-stress and post-stress fracture diagnosis for the entire population as well as individual stress fracture locations (general linear model, χ2 tests). Pre-stress and post-stress fracture performance for the three stress fracture locations were assessed: (1) earnings pre-stress and post-stress fracture (Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance), (2) average earnings per start prefracture, and (3) average earnings per start postfracture (Wilcoxon signed-rank tests). RESULTS Stress fracture locations were caudodistal (n = 36), craniodistal (n = 43), and caudoproximal (n = 52). One hundred ten of 131 horses raced postfracture, and 54 of 131 horses raced prefracture. Age at injury was 43.61 months caudodistal, 33.48 months caudoproximal, and 36.65 months craniodistal. Horses returned to race at a median of 244 days (range, 218-272). Postfracture earnings per start were greater for caudodistal vs caudoproximal (P = .04). CONCLUSION There were no differences in prefracture earnings or fracture site and sex or limb affected. Return-to-race time varied by location but not significantly. Differences in earnings preinjury and postinjury were not significant. Horses with a stress fracture at the caudodistal location earned significantly more compared with horses with a stress fracture at the caudoproximal location after they returned to race. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Thoroughbred racehorses have a good prognosis for return to racing regardless of fracture location.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L R Bramlage
- Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Judith Koenig
- Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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8
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Bellone RR, Ocampo NR, Hughes SS, Le V, Arthur R, Finno CJ, Penedo MCT. Warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 mutation (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) is not associated with catastrophic breakdown and has a low allele frequency in the Thoroughbred breed. Equine Vet J 2019; 52:411-414. [PMID: 31502696 PMCID: PMC7062577 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Background Catastrophic fractures are among the most common cause of fatalities in racehorses. Several factors, including genetics, likely contribute to increased risk for fatal injuries. A variant in the procollagen‐lysine, 2‐oxoglutarate 5‐dioxygenase1 gene (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) was shown to cause Warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 (WFFS), a fatal recessive defect of the connective tissue. Screening of multiple horse breeds identified the presence of the WFFS allele in the Thoroughbred. PLOD1 is involved in cross‐linking of collagen fibrils and thus could potentially increase the risk of catastrophic breakdown. Objectives Estimate the frequency of the WFFS allele (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) and determine if it is a risk factor for catastrophic breakdown in the Thoroughbred. Study design Case–control genetic study. Methods Genomic DNA from hair and/or tissue samples was genotyped for the WFFS allele. Fisher’s Exact tests were performed to compare allele and carrier frequencies between the case cohort (catastrophic breakdown, n = 22) and several cohorts with no record of injury (n = 138 raced/trained at same track and season and n = 185 older than 7 years and raced during same season), nonracers (n = 92), and a random sample without consideration for racing history (n = 279). Results The frequency of the PLOD1 c.2032G>A variant in the Thoroughbred breed is low (1.2%). Seventeen of 716 Thoroughbreds tested were carriers (2.4%) and no WFFS homozygotes were detected. Only one catastrophic breakdown case carried the WFFS allele. No statistically significant difference in allele or carrier frequency was identified between case and control cohorts (P>0.05 in all comparisons performed). Main limitations This study evaluated cases from one single track. Conclusions This study demonstrated that the PLOD1 c.2032G>A associated with WFFS is present at very low frequency in Thoroughbreds and is not a genetic risk factor for catastrophic breakdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Bellone
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA.,Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - N R Ocampo
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - S S Hughes
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - V Le
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - R Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - C J Finno
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - M C T Penedo
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
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9
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Spriet M, Espinosa‐Mur P, Cissell DD, Phillips KL, Arino‐Estrada G, Beylin D, Stepanov P, Katzman SA, Galuppo LD, Garcia‐Nolen T, Murphy B, Stover SM. 18
F‐sodium fluoride positron emission tomography of the racing Thoroughbred fetlock: Validation and comparison with other imaging modalities in nine horses. Equine Vet J 2018; 51:375-383. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Spriet
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - P. Espinosa‐Mur
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - D. D. Cissell
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - K. L. Phillips
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - G. Arino‐Estrada
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - D. Beylin
- Brain Biosciences, Inc. Rockville Maryland USA
| | - P. Stepanov
- Brain Biosciences, Inc. Rockville Maryland USA
| | - S. A. Katzman
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - L. D. Galuppo
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - T. Garcia‐Nolen
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - B. Murphy
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
| | - S. M. Stover
- School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis California USA
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10
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Hitchens PL, Hill AE, Stover SM. Relationship Between Historical Lameness, Medication Usage, Surgery, and Exercise With Catastrophic Musculoskeletal Injury in Racehorses. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:217. [PMID: 30246014 PMCID: PMC6137211 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The rate of catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries (CMI) in racehorses is high in the United States compared to other countries. Few modifiable risk factors related to lameness, medication, and surgery history have been identified. Objective: To detect management factors that increase risk of CMI by comparing medical histories between horses that sustained, and horses that did not sustain, a CMI. Study design: Case-control. Methods: Racehorse necropsy data (May 2012-June 2013) were obtained through the California Horse Racing Board Postmortem Program. Attending veterinarians of Thoroughbreds (TB) and Quarter Horses (QH) that experienced CMI, and of three matched control horses, were invited to complete an online veterinary medical history survey. We investigated associations between CMI and lameness, medication, surgery, and exercise history using multivariable logistic regression. Results: There were 146 TB (45 cases, 101 controls) and 17 QH (11 cases, 6 controls) surveys completed. TB cases were more likely to show signs of lameness within the 3 months prior to death compared to controls. A high proportion of both cases (64.3%) and controls (76.8%) were administered medications, but unraced TB case horses were more likely to have been administered systemic medications compared to those that previously raced. TB cases were more likely to have raced with greater intensity during their career, but had eased off in the month preceding CMI. For QHs, there was insufficient power to detect significant differences between cases and controls that showed signs of lameness, or that were administered medications. Surgery history was not associated with CMI. Main limitation: Insufficient power to detect small effect sizes. Conclusions: The study provides information that can be used to aid in identification of horses at high risk for catastrophic injury, and management factors that can be modified to reduce the risk for all horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peta L Hitchens
- J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States.,Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC, Australia
| | - Ashley E Hill
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Susan M Stover
- J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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11
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Statistical modeling of the equine third metacarpal bone incorporating morphology and bone mineral density. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194406. [PMID: 29874224 PMCID: PMC5991359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to describe the three-dimensional shape and subchondral bone mineral density (BMD) variation of the equine distal third metacarpal bone (MC3) using a statistical shape model. The association between form and function builds upon previous two-dimensional observations of MC3 epiphyseal structure. It was expected that the main source of variation would be an increase in overall MC3 bone size, correlated to an increase in subchondral BMD. Geometry and bone mineral density was obtained from CT image data of 40 healthy Thoroughbred horses. This was used to create a statistical shape model, in which the first ten components described 75% of the variation in geometry and BMD. The first principal component described an increase in overall size of the MC3 distal epiphysis, coupled with higher BMD on the disto-palmar and dorso-proximal surfaces. The second component was qualitatively described as an increased convexity of the sagittal ridge at the dorsal junction of the epiphysis and the metaphysis, coupled to increased BMD in that region. The third component showed an increase in lateral condylar surface area relative to medial condylar area. As the condyle reduced in relative surface area, the BMD at both dorsal condyles increased. The statistical shape analysis produced a compact description of 3-D shape and sub-chondral bone mineral density variation for the third metacarpal bone. This study uniquely illustrates the shape variations in a sample population of MC3 bones, and the corresponding changes in subchondral BMD.
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12
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Hopper N, Singer E, Henson F. Increased sclerostin associated with stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Bone Joint Res 2018; 7:94-102. [PMID: 29363519 PMCID: PMC5805827 DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.bjr-2016-0202.r4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The exact aetiology and pathogenesis of microdamage-induced long bone fractures remain unknown. These fractures are likely to be the result of inadequate bone remodelling in response to damage. This study aims to identify an association of osteocyte apoptosis, the presence of osteocytic osteolysis, and any alterations in sclerostin expression with a fracture of the third metacarpal (Mc-III) bone of Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods A total of 30 Mc-III bones were obtained; ten bones were fractured during racing, ten were from the contralateral limb, and ten were from control horses. Each Mc-III bone was divided into a fracture site, condyle, condylar groove, and sagittal ridge. Microcracks and diffuse microdamage were quantified. Apoptotic osteocytes were measured using TUNEL staining. Cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13), HtrA1, and sclerostin expression were analyzed. Results In the fracture group, microdamage was elevated 38.9% (sd 2.6) compared with controls. There was no difference in the osteocyte number and the percentage of apoptotic cells between contralateral limb and unraced control; however, there were significantly fewer apoptotic cells in fractured samples (p < 0.02). Immunohistochemistry showed that in deep zones of the fractured samples, sclerostin expression was significantly higher (p < 0.03) than the total number of osteocytes. No increase in cathepsin K, MMP-13, or HtrA1 was present. Conclusion There is increased microdamage in Mc-III bones that have fractured during racing. In this study, this is not associated with osteocyte apoptosis or osteocytic osteolysis. The finding of increased sclerostin in the region of the fracture suggests that this protein may be playing a key role in the regulation of bone microdamage during stress adaptation. Cite this article: N. Hopper, E. Singer, F. Henson. Increased sclerostin associated with stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:94–102. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.BJR-2016-0202.R4.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hopper
- Department of Surgery, University of Cambridge
| | - E Singer
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, School of Veterinary Medicine, Leahurst, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 6SW, UK
| | - F Henson
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK and Division of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge BC2 0QQ, UK
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13
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Janes JG, Kennedy LA, Garrett KS, Engiles JB. Common lesions of the distal end of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bone in racehorse catastrophic breakdown injuries. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:431-436. [PMID: 28681688 DOI: 10.1177/1040638717717948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine catastrophic skeletal breakdown injury is a serious issue within the racing industry, given the impact on equine and human health. The metacarpo- and metatarso-phalangeal (fetlock) joints are common sites of catastrophic injury. However, lesions involving articular cartilage, subchondral bone, and synovium are commonly identified within the fetlock of the contralateral limb; hence, it is imperative that lesions in both limbs are evaluated and characterized during postmortem examination. Bone and articular cartilage changes typically occur in specific locations, related to cyclic fetlock load and overextension during high-speed exercise. Associations between preexisting degenerative fetlock lesions and catastrophic injury are a focus of continued research. These lesions often occur because of adaptive failure related to cumulative damage. Further investigation of these lesions is imperative to determine their impact on equine performance or injury. Ultimately, consistent documentation of catastrophic versus non-catastrophic osteochondral lesions provided by pathologists, in the context of training history, diagnostic imaging, and the presence or absence of catastrophic injury, will contribute to further understanding of skeletal responses associated with catastrophic failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Janes
- Departments of Veterinary Science and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy).,Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY (Garrett).,Departments of Pathobiology and Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles)
| | - Laura A Kennedy
- Departments of Veterinary Science and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy).,Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY (Garrett).,Departments of Pathobiology and Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles)
| | - Katherine S Garrett
- Departments of Veterinary Science and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy).,Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY (Garrett).,Departments of Pathobiology and Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles)
| | - Julie B Engiles
- Departments of Veterinary Science and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy).,Rood and Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY (Garrett).,Departments of Pathobiology and Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles)
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14
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Palmer SE, McDonough SP, Mohammed HO. Reduction of Thoroughbred racing fatalities at New York Racing Association racetracks using a multi-disciplinary mortality review process. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:465-475. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638717713051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Between January 1, 2013 and December 31, 2015, findings of a New York State Gaming Commission–Cornell University postmortem examination program were utilized in a multi-disciplinary mortality review process to review 129 racing fatalities at Thoroughbred racetracks operated by the New York Racing Association (NYRA). Musculoskeletal fractures comprised 79% of the fatalities; cardiopulmonary conditions accounted for 12% of the fatalities. Other causes of death included gastrointestinal (3%), respiratory (5%), and central nervous system (2%) conditions. Fetlock failure represented 50% of the musculoskeletal fatalities. The general distribution of these findings was very similar to that reported by the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System during the same period. These findings, used in conjunction with a comprehensive mortality review process and regulatory reform, have contributed to a significant reduction of the incidence of Thoroughbred racing fatalities at NYRA racetracks during the period of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott E. Palmer
- Departments of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Palmer, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- Biomedical Sciences (McDonough), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- New York State Gaming Commission, Schenectady, NY (Palmer)
| | - Sean P. McDonough
- Departments of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Palmer, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- Biomedical Sciences (McDonough), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- New York State Gaming Commission, Schenectady, NY (Palmer)
| | - Hussni O. Mohammed
- Departments of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Palmer, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- Biomedical Sciences (McDonough), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
- New York State Gaming Commission, Schenectady, NY (Palmer)
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15
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Engiles JB, Stewart H, Janes J, Kennedy LA. A diagnostic pathologist's guide to carpal disease in racehorses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:414-430. [PMID: 28580838 DOI: 10.1177/1040638717710238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As a pathologist, postmortem examination of the equine carpus can be daunting. The anatomy is complex and oftentimes, small or subtle lesions have significant impact on lameness and secondary lesions such as catastrophic musculoskeletal fractures and other injuries. In performance horses, particularly racehorses, the carpus is a common site of injury and source of lameness. Given the predisposition of racehorses to developing carpal disease, familiarity with clinically relevant anatomy and common developmental, degenerative, traumatic, and inflammatory processes are imperative for thorough postmortem examination. Our aim is (1) to provide a concise summary of clinically relevant anatomy and function that serves as a guide for postmortem evaluation of the equine carpus, and (2) to review common carpal injuries and diseases in actively training, racing, or retired racehorses, including developmental lesions (incomplete ossification, osteochondromata), infectious and inflammatory lesions (septic arthritis and tenosynovitis), and degenerative and traumatic lesions (degenerative and traumatic osteoarthritis, osteochondral fragmentation, and polyostotic catastrophic "breakdown" fractures). Representative gross and histologic images are presented along with corresponding antemortem and postmortem diagnostic images, and a review of current scientific literature pertaining to the pathogenesis of these equine carpal lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie B Engiles
- Department of Pathobiology, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles).,Gail Holmes Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO (Stewart).,Department of Veterinary Science, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy)
| | - Holly Stewart
- Department of Pathobiology, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles).,Gail Holmes Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO (Stewart).,Department of Veterinary Science, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy)
| | - Jennifer Janes
- Department of Pathobiology, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles).,Gail Holmes Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO (Stewart).,Department of Veterinary Science, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy)
| | - Laura A Kennedy
- Department of Pathobiology, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA (Engiles).,Gail Holmes Orthopaedic Research Center, Department of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO (Stewart).,Department of Veterinary Science, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY (Janes, Kennedy)
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16
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Abstract
Postmortem lesions and cause of death were evaluated retrospectively for 963 horses examined as part of the Ontario Racing Commission Death Registry over a 13-y period. The Death Registry was established in 2003 to identify factors leading to death or euthanasia of racehorses in this Canadian province. Postmortem examination was carried out on 56% of horses reported to the Death Registry and included Standardbred, Thoroughbred, and American Quarter Horses. Musculoskeletal injury was the most common reason for death associated with racing or training among all racehorses and involved 68% of horses. A history of sudden death during or immediately following exercise was described for 31% of racing- or training-associated deaths, and in 16% of all horses in the study. Sudden death occurred in horses of all breeds, and our report describes lesions associated with sudden death in a series of Standardbreds. The cause of death in these cases was most frequently attributed to cardiopulmonary lesions. The cause of death was undetermined in 20% of sudden death cases, and it is speculated that cardiac arrhythmia may have contributed to these deaths. Injection-associated death was documented in 4% of the study population. Lesions among horses whose death was not associated with exercise were similar to those in other equine populations, and lesions involving the gastrointestinal system were most common. Standardization of pathology reporting of pulmonary and other lesions in racehorse postmortem cases would allow direct comparison of results among racehorse populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josepha DeLay
- Animal Health Laboratory, Laboratory Services Division, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Stover SM. Nomenclature, classification, and documentation of catastrophic fractures and associated preexisting injuries in racehorses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:396-404. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638717692846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Racehorses are susceptible to bone fractures when damage from repetitive, high-magnitude loads incurred during training and racing exceed concurrent damage removal and replacement, resulting in transient periods of focal osteoporosis and bone weakening. Clinically, these events correspond to cortical stress fractures and subchondral bone stress remodeling. Evidence of these preexisting lesions include periosteal callus, endosteal callus, and intracortical focal hyperemia for cortical stress fractures; and subchondral focal hyperemia located superficial to sclerotic compacted trabecular bone tissue for subchondral stress remodeling. These findings must be in direct physical association with an acute fracture to infer that the abnormalities precipitated complete bone fracture. Recognition of preexisting lesions must be conveyed in the autopsy report to the racehorse industry audience because this is the mechanism for education of racehorse trainers, veterinarians, and owners. Standardized anatomic nomenclature, fracture classification, and documentation of gross autopsy findings specific to catastrophic bone fractures in racehorses provides information to empower changes in management of racehorses for the detection and management of mild injuries and prevention of catastrophic fractures.
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18
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Diab SS, Stover SM, Carvallo F, Nyaoke AC, Moore J, Hill A, Arthur R, Uzal FA. Diagnostic approach to catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries in racehorses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:405-413. [PMID: 28065163 DOI: 10.1177/1040638716685598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries are the most common cause of euthanasia or spontaneous death in racehorses, and the most common cause of jockey falls with potential for serious human injury. Horses are predisposed to the vast majority of these injuries by preexisting lesions that can be prevented by early diagnosis and adequate bone injury management. A thorough examination of the musculoskeletal system in racehorses often determines the cause of these injuries and generates data to develop injury prevention strategies. We describe the diagnostic approach to musculoskeletal injury, review the methodology for the examination of racehorse limbs, and provide anatomy and pathology tools to perform an organized and thorough postmortem examination of the musculoskeletal system in equine athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago S Diab
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Susan M Stover
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Francisco Carvallo
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Akinyi C Nyaoke
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Janet Moore
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Ashley Hill
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Rick Arthur
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, CA (Diab) and San Bernardino, CA (Uzal, Carvallo, Nyaoke, Moore).,J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Stover).,School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA (Arthur)
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Lescun TB, Hoffseth K, Yang HT, Hansma PK, Kopeikin HS, Chandrasekar S. Effect of various testing conditions on results for a handheld reference point indentation instrument in horses. Am J Vet Res 2016; 77:39-49. [PMID: 26709935 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.77.1.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare results obtained with a handheld reference point indentation instrument for bone material strength index (BMSi) measurements in the equine third metacarpal bone for various testing conditions. SAMPLE 24 third metacarpal bones. PROCEDURES Third metacarpal bones from both forelimbs of 12 horses were obtained. The dorsal surface of each bone was divided into 6 testing regions. In vivo and ex vivo measurements of BMSi were obtained through the skin and on exposed bone, respectively, to determine effects of each testing condition. Difference plots were used to assess agreement between BMSi obtained for various conditions. Linear regression analysis was used to assess effects of age, sex, and body weight on BMSi. A mixed-model ANOVA was used to assess effects of age, sex, limb, bone region, and testing condition on BMSi values. RESULTS Indentation measurements were performed on standing sedated and recumbent anesthetized horses and on cadaveric bone. Regional differences in BMSi values were detected in adult horses. A significant linear relationship (r(2) = 0.71) was found between body weight and BMSi values. There was no difference between in vivo and ex vivo BMSi values. A small constant bias was detected between BMSi obtained through the skin, compared with values obtained directly on bone. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Reference point indentation can be used for in vivo assessment of the resistance of bone tissue to microfracture in horses. Testing through the skin should account for a small constant bias, compared with results for testing directly on exposed bone.
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20
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Noble P, Singer ER, Jeffery NS. Does subchondral bone of the equine proximal phalanx adapt to race training? J Anat 2016; 229:104-13. [PMID: 27075139 PMCID: PMC5341590 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sagittal fractures of the first phalanx are a common, potentially catastrophic injury in racehorses. These fractures are often linked to an acute, one time, biomechanical event; however, recent evidence implies that chronic exposure to stress can lead to the accumulation of bony changes that affect the structural integrity of the bone and increase the likelihood of fracture. The aim of the study was to compare variations of two common metrics of bone adaptation - subchondral bone density and thickness across the proximal articular surface of the first phalanx in Thoroughbred horses that (1) raced but never experienced a first phalanx fracture (Raced Control); (2) raced and had experienced fracture of the contralateral first phalanx (Contralateral to Fracture); (3) had never raced or experienced a first phalanx fracture (Unraced Control). A total of 22 first phalangeal bones were sampled post-mortem and imaged using micro-computed tomography calibrated for mineral density measures. Measurements of volumetric subchondral bone mineral density and thickness were taken from images at five sites from medial to lateral, in three coronal planes (25, 50 and 75% dorsal-palmar). At each of the 15 sites, measurements were repeated and averaged across 10 adjacent micro-computed tomography slices of bone, spanning 0.75 mm. The magnitude and variance of these measurements were compared between sites and between cohorts with non-parametric statistical tests. Across the proximal osteochondral surface of the first phalanx, the pattern of subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness varied with each coronal section studied. The subchondral bone thickness was greater for the central and dorsal coronal sections, compared with the palmar section. For the race-fit groups (Raced Control and Contralateral to Fracture), the highest volumetric bone mineral density was in the central sagittal groove. The volumetric bone mineral density was significantly greater in the sagittal groove in the central coronal section in the raced than the unraced group. The Contralateral to Fracture group demonstrated significantly greater variance of volumetric bone mineral density compared with the Raced Control and Unraced Control (P < 0.0001), with no difference in variance noted between the Raced Control and Unraced Control groups. There was a small (R rank = 0.3) but significant correlation between subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness in the Contralateral to Fracture group (P = 0.005). The findings demonstrate that differences exist in subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness across the proximal osteochondral surface of the equine first phalanx in horses with different training histories. The findings also demonstrate that the subchondral bone of the sagittal groove of the equine first phalanx adapts to race-training in the race-fit groups (Raced Control and Contralateral to Fracture) with an increase in volumetric bone mineral density relative to unraced controls. Within the race-trained groups, the Contralateral to Fracture bones had a greater variance of volumetric bone mineral density, suggesting that stress-induced bone adaptation had become more erratic, potentially contributing to the aetiology of sagittal fractures of the first phalanx in the Thoroughbred racehorse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillipa Noble
- School of Veterinary ScienceUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Ellen R. Singer
- Department of Musculoskeletal BiologyInstitute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseNestonUK
| | - Nathan S. Jeffery
- Department of Musculoskeletal BiologyInstitute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseNestonUK
- Human Anatomy Resource CentreUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
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21
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Peloso JG, Vogler III JB, Cohen ND, Marquis P, Hilt L. Association of catastrophic biaxial fracture of the proximal sesamoid bones with bony changes of the metacarpophalangeal joint identified by standing magnetic resonance imaging in cadaveric forelimbs of Thoroughbred racehorses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2015; 246:661-73. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.246.6.661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Beisser A, McClure S, Rezabek G, Soring KH, Wang C. Frequency of and risk factors associated with catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries in Quarter Horses at two Midwestern racetracks: 67 cases (2000–2011). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2014; 245:1160-8. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.245.10.1160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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23
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Dubois MS, Morello S, Rayment K, Markel MD, Vanderby R, Kalscheur VL, Hao Z, McCabe RP, Marquis P, Muir P. Computed tomographic imaging of subchondral fatigue cracks in the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in the thoroughbred racehorse can predict crack micromotion in an ex-vivo model. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101230. [PMID: 25077477 PMCID: PMC4117462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular stress fracture arising from the distal end of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) is a common serious injury in Thoroughbred racehorses. Currently, there is no method for predicting fracture risk clinically. We describe an ex-vivo biomechanical model in which we measured subchondral crack micromotion under compressive loading that modeled high speed running. Using this model, we determined the relationship between subchondral crack dimensions measured using computed tomography (CT) and crack micromotion. Thoracic limbs from 40 Thoroughbred racehorses that had sustained a catastrophic injury were studied. Limbs were radiographed and examined using CT. Parasagittal subchondral fatigue crack dimensions were measured on CT images using image analysis software. MC3 bones with fatigue cracks were tested using five cycles of compressive loading at -7,500N (38 condyles, 18 horses). Crack motion was recorded using an extensometer. Mechanical testing was validated using bones with 3 mm and 5 mm deep parasagittal subchondral slots that modeled naturally occurring fatigue cracks. After testing, subchondral crack density was determined histologically. Creation of parasagittal subchondral slots induced significant micromotion during loading (p<0.001). In our biomechanical model, we found a significant positive correlation between extensometer micromotion and parasagittal crack area derived from reconstructed CT images (SR = 0.32, p<0.05). Correlations with transverse and frontal plane crack lengths were not significant. Histologic fatigue damage was not significantly correlated with crack dimensions determined by CT or extensometer micromotion. Bones with parasagittal crack area measurements above 30 mm2 may have a high risk of crack propagation and condylar fracture in vivo because of crack micromotion. In conclusion, our results suggest that CT could be used to quantify subchondral fatigue crack dimensions in racing Thoroughbred horses in-vivo to assess risk of condylar fracture. Horses with parasagittal crack arrays that exceed 30 mm2 may have a high risk for development of condylar fracture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Soleil Dubois
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Samantha Morello
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Kelsey Rayment
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mark D. Markel
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Ray Vanderby
- Department of Orthopedics & Rehabilitation, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Vicki L. Kalscheur
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Zhengling Hao
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Ronald P. McCabe
- Department of Orthopedics & Rehabilitation, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Patricia Marquis
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Gulfstream Park, Hallandale Beach, Florida, United States of America
| | - Peter Muir
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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Hitchens PL, Hill AE, Stover SM. Jockey Falls, Injuries, and Fatalities Associated With Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse Racing in California, 2007-2011. Orthop J Sports Med 2013; 1:2325967113492625. [PMID: 26535231 PMCID: PMC4555501 DOI: 10.1177/2325967113492625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the popularity of the horse racing industry in the United States and the wide recognition that horse racing is one of the most hazardous occupations, little focused research into the prevention of falls by and injuries to jockeys has been conducted. PURPOSE To describe the incidence rates and characteristics of falls and injuries to Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racing jockeys in the state of California. STUDY DESIGN Descriptive epidemiology study. METHODS Data on race-day falls and injuries were extracted from jockey accident reports submitted to the California Horse Racing Board from January 2007 to December 2011. Denominator data, number of jockey race rides, were obtained from commercial and industry databases. Jockey fall, injury, and fatality incidence rates and ratios in Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse flat races were estimated using Poisson regression. Characteristics of falls and injuries are described and compared. RESULTS In Thoroughbred races, 184 jockey injuries occurred from 360 reported jockey falls, 180,646 race rides, 23,500 races, and 3350 race meetings. In Quarter Horse races, 85 jockey injuries occurred from 145 jockey falls, 46,106 race rides, 6320 races, and 1053 race meetings. Jockey falls occurred at a rate of 1.99 falls per 1000 rides in Thoroughbred races, with 51% of falls resulting in jockey injury, and 3.14 falls per 1000 rides in Quarter Horse races, with 59% of falls resulting in jockey injury. The majority of falls occurred during a race, with catastrophic injury or sudden death of the horse reported as the most common cause in both Thoroughbred (29%) and Quarter Horse (44%) races. During the period studied, 1 jockey fatality resulted from a fall. Jockey fall rates were lower but injury rates were comparable to those reported internationally. CONCLUSION On average, a licensed jockey in California can expect to have a fall every 502 rides in Thoroughbred races and every 318 rides in Quarter Horse races. While jockey fall rates were lower, injury rates were similar to those in other racing jurisdictions. The high proportion of jockey falls caused by horse fatalities should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peta L Hitchens
- J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA. ; California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ashley E Hill
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Susan M Stover
- J.D. Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
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Sarrafian TL, Case JT, Kinde H, Daft BM, Read DH, Moore JD, Uzal FA, Stover SM. Fatal musculoskeletal injuries of Quarter Horse racehorses: 314 cases (1990-2007). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013; 241:935-42. [PMID: 23013508 DOI: 10.2460/javma.241.7.935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine major causes of death and the anatomic location of musculoskeletal injuries in Quarter Horse racehorses in California. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 314 Quarter Horse racehorses with musculoskeletal injuries that were necropsied through the California Horse Racing Board Postmortem Program from 1990 to 2007. PROCEDURES Postmortem pathology reports were retrospectively reviewed. Musculoskeletal injuries were categorized by anatomic region and described. The number of Quarter Horse starts and starters for the same period of time were obtained from a commercial database for determination of fatal injury incidence. RESULTS Musculoskeletal injuries accounted for 314 of the 443 (71 %) Quarter Horse racehorses that died during the 18-year study period. Fatal musculoskeletal injuries occurred at a rate of 2.0 deaths/1,000 race starts and 18.6 deaths/1,000 horses that started a race. Musculoskeletal injuries occurred predominantly during racing (84%) and in the forelimbs (81%). The most common fatal musculoskeletal injuries were metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joint (fetlock) support injuries (40%) and carpal (24%), vertebral (10%), and scapular (8%) fractures. Proximal interphalangeal (pastern) joint luxations resulted in death of 3% of horses. Fracture configurations of some bones were consistent with those of Thoroughbred racehorses. Evidence of preexisting stress remodeling of bone was reported for some fractures. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Knowledge of common locations and types of fatal musculoskeletal injuries in racing Quarter Horses may enhance practitioners' ability to detect mild injuries early, rest horses, and help prevent catastrophic injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L Sarrafian
- JD Wheat Veterinary Orthopedic Research Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, 95616, USA
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Reed SA, Leahy ER. Growth and Development Symposium: Stem cell therapy in equine tendon injury. J Anim Sci 2012; 91:59-65. [PMID: 23100589 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2012-5736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendon injuries affect all levels of athletic horses and represent a significant loss to the equine industry. Accumulation of microdamage within the tendon architecture leads to formation of core lesions. Traditional approaches to tendon repair are based on an initial period of rest to limit the inflammatory process followed by a controlled reloading program designed to promote the maturation and linear arrangement of scar tissue within the lesion. However, these treatment protocols are inefficient, resulting in prolonged recovery periods and frequent recurrence. Current alternative therapies include the use of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSC) and a population of nucleated cells from adipose containing adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AdMSC). Umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells (UCB) have recently received attention for their increased plasticity in vitro and potential as a therapeutic aid. Both BMSC and AdMSC require expansion in culture before implantation to obtain a pure stem cell population, limiting the time frame for implantation. Collected at parturition, UCB can be cryopreserved for future use. Furthermore, the low immunogenicity of the UCB population allows for allogeneic implantation. Current research indicates that BMSC, AdMSC, and UCB can differentiate into tenocyte-like cells in vitro, increasing expression of scleraxis, tenascin c, and extracellular matrix proteins. When implanted, BMSC and AdMSC engraft into the tendon and improve tendon architecture. However, treatment with these stem cells does not decrease recovery period. Furthermore, the resulting regeneration is not optimal, as the resulting tissue is still inferior to native tendon. Umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells may provide an alternate source of stem cells that promote improved regeneration of tendon tissue. A more naïve cell population, these cells may have a greater rate of engraftment as well as an increased ability to secrete bioactive factors and recruit additional reparative cells. Further work should clarify the role of distinct stem cell sources in the regenerating tendon and the need for a naïve or differentiated cell type for implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Reed
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
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Dimock AN, Hoffman KD, Puchalski SM, Stover SM. Humeral stress remodelling locations differ in Thoroughbred racehorses training and racing on dirt compared to synthetic racetrack surfaces. Equine Vet J 2012; 45:176-81. [PMID: 22779946 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00596.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A N Dimock
- William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, USA
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Lacourt M, Gao C, Li A, Girard C, Beauchamp G, Henderson JE, Laverty S. Relationship between cartilage and subchondral bone lesions in repetitive impact trauma-induced equine osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2012; 20:572-83. [PMID: 22343573 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To correlate degenerative changes in cartilage and subchondral bone in the third carpal bone (C3) of Standardbred racehorses with naturally occurring repetitive trauma-induced osteoarthritis. DESIGN Fifteen C3, collected from Standardbred horses postmortem, were assessed for cartilage lesions by visual inspection and divided into Control (CO), Early Osteoarthritis (EOA) and Advanced Osteoarthritis (AOA) groups. Two osteochondral cores were harvested from corresponding dorsal sites on each bone and scanned with a micro-computed tomography (CT) instrument. 2D images were assembled into 3D reconstructions that were used to quantify architectural parameters from selected regions of interest, including bone mineral density and bone volume fraction. 2D images, illustrating the most severe lesion per core, were scored for architectural appearance by blinded observers. Thin sections of paraffin-embedded decalcified cores stained with Safranin O-Fast Green, matched to the micro-CT images, were scored using a modified Mankin scoring system. RESULTS Subchondral bone pits with deep focal areas of porosity were seen more frequently in AOA than EOA but never in CO. Articular cartilage damage was seen in association with a reduction in bone mineral and loss of bone tissue. Histological analyses revealed significant numbers of microcracks in the calcified cartilage of EOA and AOA groups and a progressive increase in the score compared with CO bones. CONCLUSION The data reveal corresponding, progressive degenerative changes in articular cartilage and subchondral bone, including striking focal resorptive lesions, in the third carpal bone of racehorses subjected to repetitive, high impact trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lacourt
- Comparative Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Département de Sciences Cliniques, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe (QC), J2S 7C6, Canada.
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VALLANCE SA, CASE JT, ENTWISTLE RC, KINDE H, BARR BC, MOORE J, ANDERSON ML, ARTHUR RM, STOVER SM. Characteristics of Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racehorses that sustained a complete scapular fracture. Equine Vet J 2011; 44:425-31. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00481.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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WHITLOCK D, GARCIA TC, VALLANCE SA, STOVER SM. Possible role of carpal hyperextension in superficial digital flexor tendinopathy. Equine Vet J 2011; 44:559-63. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00466.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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VALLANCE SA, SPRIET M, STOVER SM. Catastrophic scapular fractures in Californian racehorses: Pathology, morphometry and bone density. Equine Vet J 2011; 43:676-85. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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POWELL SE. Low-field standing magnetic resonance imaging findings of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint of racing Thoroughbreds with lameness localised to the region: A retrospective study of 131 horses. Equine Vet J 2011; 44:169-77. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00389.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Anthenill LA, Gardner IA, Pool RR, Garcia TC, Stover SM. Comparison of macrostructural and microstructural bone features in Thoroughbred racehorses with and without midbody fracture of the proximal sesamoid bone. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71:755-65. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.71.7.755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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