Down-regulation of CXCL1 inhibits tumor growth in colorectal liver metastasis

Signaling pathways in colorectal cancer implications for the target therapies

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) stands as a pressing global health issue, marked by the unbridled proliferation of immature cells influenced by multifaceted internal and external factors. Numerous studies have explored the intricate mechanisms of tumorigenesis in CRC, with a primary emphasis on signaling pathways, particularly those associated with growth factors and chemokines. However, the sheer diversity of molecular targets introduces complexity into the selection of targeted therapies, posing a significant challenge in achieving treatment precision. The quest for an effective CRC treatment is further complicated by the absence of pathological insights into the mutations or alterations occurring in tumor cells. This study reveals the transfer of signaling from the cell membrane to the nucleus, unveiling recent advancements in this crucial cellular process. By shedding light on this novel dimension, the research enhances our understanding of the molecular intricacies underlying CRC, providing a potential avenue for breakthroughs in targeted therapeutic strategies. In addition, the study comprehensively outlines the potential immune responses incited by the aberrant activation of signaling pathways, with a specific focus on immune cells, cytokines, and their collective impact on the dynamic landscape of drug development. This research not only contributes significantly to advancing CRC treatment and molecular medicine but also lays the groundwork for future breakthroughs and clinical trials, fostering optimism for improved outcomes and refined approaches in combating colorectal carcinoma.

STS ⅡA inhibited angiogenesis of lung adenocarcinoma by activating FOXO3 to inhibit CXCL1/STAT3/VEGF pathway

BACKGROUND

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most popular type of lung cancer. Sulfotanshinone IIA sodium (STS IIA) has been proven to have an anticancer effect. However, its role in LUAD and its underlying mechanism remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role and mechanism of STS IIA in LUAD angiogenesis.

METHODS

The mRNA levels of genes, including forkhead box O3 (FOXO3) and chemokine C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1), were detected by qRT-PCR. The levels of proteins, including FOXO3, CXCL1, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), were measured by Western blot. The proliferation and angiogenesis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were detected by the EdU assay and the tubule formation assay, respectively. The binding relationship between FOXO3 and CXCL1 was detected by dual-luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

Our results illustrated that different concentrations of STS IIA inhibited the proliferation and angiogenesis of HUVECs. FOXO3 regulated the proliferation and angiogenesis of HUVECs inhibited by STS ⅡA via targeting CXCL1. Subsequently, we proved that exogenous CXCL1 alleviated the inhibition of proliferation and angiogenesis of HUVECs regulated by STS IIA via activating the STAT3/VEGF pathway. Finally, we found that STS IIA inhibited the angiogenesis of lung adenocarcinoma though FOXO3 to inhibit the CXCL1/STAT3/VEGF pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our study finally elucidated the underlying molecular mechanism by which STS ⅡA inhibits LUAD angiogenesis.

A New Method for Constructing Macrophage-Associated Predictors of Treatment Efficacy Based on Single-Cell Sequencing Analysis

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are highly infiltrated in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of colorectal cancer (CRC) and play a vital role in CRC's development as well as prognosis. The required data were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and The Cancer Genome Atlas. Univariate Cox regression and least absolute shrinkage operator analyses were executed for model construction. TME assessment and immune prediction were performed using the ESTIMATE software package and the single sample genome enrichment analysis algorithm. The results show patients with low a TAMs risk score (TRS) had a better prognosis in both The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus cohorts. Patients with low TRS were more sensitive to 3 chemotherapeutic agents: oxaliplatin, paclitaxel, and cisplatin ( P <0.05). TME assessment showed that the low TRS group had less infiltration of M2 macrophages and regulatory T cells, but CD4 + T cells, NK cells, and dendritic cells occupy a greater proportion of TME. Low TRS group patients have a low StromalScore and ImmuneScore but have high TumorPurity. The immune checkpoint TIM-3 gene HAVCR2 expression was significantly higher in the high TRS group. Finally, we created a nomogram including TRS for forecasting survival, and TRS was significantly associated with the clinical stage of the patients. In conclusion, the TRS serves as a reliable prognostic indicator of CRC; it predicts patient outcomes to immunotherapy and chemotherapy and provides genomic evidence for the subsequent development of modulated TAMs for treating CRC.

The Significance of CXCL1 and CXCR1 as Potential Biomarkers of Colorectal Cancer

The CXCL1/CXCR2 and CXCL8-CXCR1/CXCR2 axes are under intensive investigation as they appear to regulate the progression and invasion of colorectal cancer (CRC). Growing evidence demonstrates the elevated expression of these proteins in CRC. However, a majority of relevant studies have been performed on CRC tissues using immunohistochemical techniques. Our study is the first to evaluate the diagnostic significance of serum CXCL1 and CXCR1 levels in CRC patients in comparison to well-established tumor markers, such as the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), and markers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein (CRP). Thus, the aim of our study was to assess whether circulating serum levels of CXCL1 and CXCR1 might be candidates for novel biomarkers in the diagnosis and progression of CRC. The study was performed on 76 subjects, including patients with CRC and healthy volunteers as a control group. Serum concentrations of CXCL1, CXCR1, and the classical tumor marker (CEA) were measured using immunoenzyme assays, while CRP levels were assessed with the immunoturbidimetric method. Serum CXCL1 levels were statistically significantly increased in CRC patients when compared to healthy subjects, and similar results were found for CEA and CRP levels. The percentage of elevated concentrations of CXCL1 and CXCR1 was higher than that of the classical tumor biomarker and increased in the combined measurement of these proteins with CEA. In addition, among all proteins tested, serum CXCL1 seems to be the best indicator in the differentiation between CRC patients with nodal involvement and patients without the presence of lymph node metastasis. Our preliminary results indicate the role of serum CXCL1 and CXCR1 in the diagnosis of CRC, particularly in the combined measurement with CEA.

Hsa_circ_0007031 promotes the proliferation and migration of osteosarcoma cells by sponging miR-196a-5p to regulate the HOXB6

Circular RNAs (circRNAs), a subclass of noncoding RNAs, have been demonstrated to play an essential role in osteosarcoma (OS) development. However, there is still a significant gap in investigating its biological functions and underlying molecular mechanisms, and novel targets of circRNAs have yet to be fully explored. Herein, we found that hsa_circ_0007031 is noticeably raised in OS clinical tissues and cell lines. Hsa-circ-0007031 accelerates OS cell proliferation and migration in vitro and tumor growth and metastasis in vivo and is strongly linked with the stemness of cancer stem cells in OS. Mechanistically, hsa_circ_0007031 shares miRNA response elements with Homeobox B6 (HOXB6), which is identified as a novel pro-tumorigenic gene of OS. Hsa_circ_0007031 competitively binds to miR-196a-5p to prevent miR-196a-5p from lowering the level of HOXB6, which modulates chemokines of cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction signaling pathway and finally promotes OS malignant behavior. In summary, our data unveiled that hsa_circ_0007031/miR-196a-5p/HOXB6 axis-mediated cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction facilitates the progression of OS and maintains the properties of tumor stem cells, which could be a promising therapeutic target for OS.

Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling in Gastrointestinal Cancer: Role of miRNAs as Biomarkers of Tumor Invasion

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers are the most frequent neoplasm, responsible for half of all cancer-related deaths. Metastasis is the leading cause of death from GI cancer; thus, studying the processes that regulate cancer cell migration is of paramount importance for the development of new therapeutic strategies. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms adopted by cancer cells to promote cell migration and the subsequent metastasis formation by highlighting the key role that tumor microenvironment components play in deregulating cellular pathways involved in these processes. We, therefore, provide an overview of the role of different microRNAs in promoting tumor metastasis and their role as potential biomarkers for the prognosis, monitoring, and diagnosis of GI cancer patients. Finally, we relate the possible use of nutraceuticals as a new strategy for targeting numerous microRNAs and different pathways involved in GI tumor invasiveness.

The Clinical Significance and Role of CXCL1 Chemokine in Gastrointestinal Cancers

One area of cancer research is the interaction between cancer cells and immune cells, in which chemokines play a vital role. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the involvement of C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1) chemokine (also known as growth-regulated gene-α (GRO-α), melanoma growth-stimulatory activity (MGSA)) in cancer processes is lacking. To address this gap, this review provides a detailed analysis of CXCL1's role in gastrointestinal cancers, including head and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)), cholangiocarcinoma, pancreatic cancer (pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma), and colorectal cancer (colon cancer and rectal cancer). This paper presents the impact of CXCL1 on various molecular cancer processes, such as cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, lymph node metastasis, angiogenesis, recruitment to the tumor microenvironment, and its effect on immune system cells, such as tumor-associated neutrophils (TAN), regulatory T (T_reg) cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and macrophages. Furthermore, this review discusses the association of CXCL1 with clinical aspects of gastrointestinal cancers, including its correlation with tumor size, cancer grade, tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage, and patient prognosis. This paper concludes by exploring CXCL1's potential as a therapeutic target in anticancer therapy.

Novel biomarkers for neoplastic progression from ulcerative colitis to colorectal cancer: a systems biology approach

In recent studies, the void of evaluation and in-depth understanding of unknown clinically relevant potential molecular biomarkers involved in colorectal cancer (CRC) from the inflammatory stage of ulcerative colitis (UC) to CRC metastasis, which can be suitable therapeutic targets, is deeply felt. The regulation and interaction among different cancer-promoting molecules, including messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and micro RNAs (miRNAs) in CRC and its progression, were the aim we pursued in this study. Using microarray data, we investigated the differential expression for five datasets, including mRNA and microRNA samples related to UC, tumor/normal. Then, using robust data analysis, separate lists of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) were identified, which were used for robust rank aggregation (RRA) and co-expression network analysis. Then, comprehensive computational systems biology analyses, including gene ontology and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomic pathway enrichment analyses, mRNA-miRNA regulatory network, and survival analysis, were employed to achieve the aim of this study. Finally, we used clinical samples to validate this potential and new target. According to this systems biology approach, a total of 98 DEGs and 8 DEmiRNAs with common differential expression were identified. By combining the distinct results of RRA and network, several potential therapeutic targets, and predictive and prognostic biomarkers for UC and CRC were identified. These targets include six common hub genes, CXCL1, CXCL8, MMP7, SLCA16A9, PLAU, and TIMP1, which are upregulated. Among these, the important and new biomarker SLC16A9 is negatively regulated by hsa-mir-194-5p, and hsa-miR-378a-5p take. The findings of the present study provide new insight into the pathogenesis of CRC in UC. Our study suggests future evaluation of the functional role of SLC16A9 and hsa-mir-194-5p and hsa-miR-378a-5p in CRC development.

Which patients are prone to suffer liver metastasis? A review of risk factors of metachronous liver metastasis of colorectal cancer

Background

In recent years, with the increasing incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) and its high fatality rate, CRC has seized the attention of the world. And liver metastasis, as the main cause of death of CRC, has become the leading cause of treatment failure in CRC, especially metachronous liver metastasis, have caused patients who underwent bowel resection to experience multiple tortures.

Main body

Metachronous liver metastasis has severely affected the quality of life and prognosis of patients. Therefore, in this review, we discuss risk factors for metachronous liver metastasis of CRC, which is the premise for effective intervention for CRC patients who suffer metachronous liver metastasis after undergoing surgery, as well as the signaling pathways associated with CRC.

Conclusion

The occurrence of metachronous liver metastasis is closely related to histology-based prognostic biomarkers, serum-based biomarkers, tumor microenvironment, pre-metastatic niche, liquid biopsy and tissue-based biomarkers. Further research is required to explore the risk factors associated with liver metastasis of CRC.

CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 as biomarkers of liver injury caused by chronic hepatitis B

Background

Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) remains a significant global health problem, leading to recurrent inflammation and liver-damaging diseases such as fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Currently, although diagnostic markers for CHB are well established, the indicators for predicting liver injury caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection still need to be further explored. Thus, the identification of credible infectious indicators is urgently needed to facilitate timely clinical intervention and avoid the progression of disease malignancy.

Methods

The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database GSE83148 data set was used to explore the hub genes for HBV infection. The quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to identify the impact of HBV infection on the expression of hub gene at the cell level. At the same time, serum samples and clinical information were collected from healthy, HBV-free and CHB patients. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to verify the results of cell experiments and Pearson correlation analysis was used to clarify hub genes correlation with HBV infection indicators and liver injury-related indicators. Finally, the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) database was used to analyze the differences in the expression of hub gene in liver injury diseases.

Results

Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand (CXCL)8, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 were identified as hub genes in HBV infection. After HBV infection, the expression of the four chemokines was significantly increased and the concentrations secreted into serum were also increased. Moreover, the four chemokines were significantly correlated with HBV infection-related indicators and liver injury-related indicators, which were positively correlated with alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), and negatively correlated with AST/ALT ratio and hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb). In addition, the expression of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 in HCC tissues was significantly higher than in normal tissues.

Conclusion

Using a combination of bioinformatics, cell experiments, and clinical correlation analysis, this study showed that CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 can be used as serum biomarkers to forecast liver injury caused by HBV infection.

The Role of Inflammatory Mediators in Colorectal Cancer Hepatic Metastasis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of death in cancer patients in the USA, whereas the major cause of CRC deaths is hepatic metastases. The liver is the most common site of metastasis in patients with CRC due to hepatic portal veins receiving blood from the digestive tract. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of hepatic metastases is of dire need for the development of potent targeted therapeutics. Immuno-signaling molecules including cytokines and chemokines play a pivotal role in hepatic metastases from CRC. This brief review discusses the involvement of three representative cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), a lipid molecule PGE2 and two chemokines (CXCL1 and CXCL2) in the process of CRC liver metastases.

Machine learning predicts cancer subtypes and progression from blood immune signatures

Clinical adoption of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer management has highlighted the interconnection between carcinogenesis and the immune system. Immune cells are integral to the tumour microenvironment and can influence the outcome of therapies. Better understanding of an individual’s immune landscape may play an important role in treatment personalisation. Peripheral blood is a readily accessible source of information to study an individual’s immune landscape compared to more complex and invasive tumour bioipsies, and may hold immense diagnostic and prognostic potential. Identifying the critical components of these immune signatures in peripheral blood presents an attractive alternative to tumour biopsy-based immune phenotyping strategies. We used two syngeneic solid tumour models, a 4T1 breast cancer model and a CT26 colorectal cancer model, in a longitudinal study of the peripheral blood immune landscape. Our strategy combined two highly accessible approaches, blood leukocyte immune phenotyping and plasma soluble immune factor characterisation, to identify distinguishing immune signatures of the CT26 and 4T1 tumour models using machine learning. Myeloid cells, specifically neutrophils and PD-L1-expressing myeloid cells, were found to correlate with tumour size in both the models. Elevated levels of G-CSF, IL-6 and CXCL13, and B cell counts were associated with 4T1 growth, whereas CCL17, CXCL10, total myeloid cells, CCL2, IL-10, CXCL1, and Ly6C^intermediate monocytes were associated with CT26 tumour development. Peripheral blood appears to be an accessible means to interrogate tumour-dependent changes to the host immune landscape, and to identify blood immune phenotypes for future treatment stratification.

A Role of CXCL1 Drives Osteosarcoma Lung Metastasis via VCAM-1 Production

Osteosarcoma, a common aggressive and malignant cancer, appears in the musculoskeletal system among young adults. The major cause of mortality in osteosarcoma was the recurrence of lung metastases. However, the molecular mechanisms of metastasis involved in osteosarcomas remain unclear. Recently, CXCL1 and CXCR2 have been crucial indicators for lung metastasis in osteosarcoma by paracrine releases, suggesting the involvement of directing neutrophils into tumor microenvironment. In this study, overexpression of CXCL1 has a positive correlation with the migratory and invasive activities in osteosarcoma cell lines. Furthermore, the signaling pathway, CXCR2/FAK/PI3K/Akt, is activated through CXCL1 by promoting vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) via upregulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) expression and nuclear translocation. The in vivo animal model further demonstrated that CXCL1 serves as a critical promoter in osteosarcoma metastasis to the lung. The correlated expression of CXCL1 and VCAM-1 was observed in the immunohistochemistry staining from human osteosarcoma specimens. Our findings demonstrate the cascade mechanism regulating the network in lung metastasis osteosarcoma, therefore indicating that the CXCL1/CXCR2 pathway is a worthwhile candidate to further develop treatment schemas.

Sirolimus diminishes the expression of GRO-α (CXCL-1) /CXCR2 axis in human keratinocytes and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

Organ transplant recipients show a high incidence for the formation of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), while sirolimus appears to reduce the risk. GRO-α is a chemokine, which is overexpressed in many tumor entities and associated with malignant transformation. However, little is known about the expression and function of GRO-α in human cSCC.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to investigate the relevance of the GRO-α (CXCL-1)/ CXCR2 axis in human cSCC and the potential impact of sirolimus.

METHODS

We analyzed the GRO-α expression in human keratinocytes, different cSCC cell lines as well as cSCC tissue and investigated its effect on cell proliferation and migration. Additionally, we incubated cells with sirolimus and measured the expression of GRO-α and its receptor CXCR2.

RESULTS

We showed that both constitutive as well as induced GRO-α expression is higher in in cSCC cell lines compared to keratinocytes and that GRO-α protein is detectable in human cSCC tissue. By GRO-α exposure and shRNA knock down, we identified GRO-α as a driving factor in proliferation and migration. Moreover, in a dermis equivalent GRO-α knocked down cSCC cell lines displayed a reduced capacity in tumor nest formation. Incubation with sirolimus significantly inhibited GRO-α expression in keratinocytes as well as tumor cell lines. Moreover, sirolimus decreased the expression of the corresponding receptor CXCR2.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results suggest that the GRO-α/CXCR2 axis plays a role in human keratinocyte carcinogenesis and might represent a molecular mechanism for the preventive effect of mTOR inhibitors in cSCC development.

The Interplay between Nutrition, Innate Immunity, and the Commensal Microbiota in Adaptive Intestinal Morphogenesis

The gastrointestinal tract is a functionally and anatomically segmented organ that is colonized by microbial communities from birth. While the genetics of mouse gut development is increasingly understood, how nutritional factors and the commensal gut microbiota act in concert to shape tissue organization and morphology of this rapidly renewing organ remains enigmatic. Here, we provide an overview of embryonic mouse gut development, with a focus on the intestinal vasculature and the enteric nervous system. We review how nutrition and the gut microbiota affect the adaptation of cellular and morphologic properties of the intestine, and how these processes are interconnected with innate immunity. Furthermore, we discuss how nutritional and microbial factors impact the renewal and differentiation of the epithelial lineage, influence the adaptation of capillary networks organized in villus structures, and shape the enteric nervous system and the intestinal smooth muscle layers. Intriguingly, the anatomy of the gut shows remarkable flexibility to nutritional and microbial challenges in the adult organism.

Elimination of NF-κB signaling in Vimentin+ stromal cells attenuates tumorigenesis in a mouse model of Barrett's Esophagus

Chronic inflammation induces Barrett's Esophagus (BE) which can advance to esophageal adenocarcinoma. Elevated levels of interleukin (IL)-1b, IL-6 and IL-8 together with activated nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), have been identified as important mediators of tumorigenesis. The inflammatory milieu apart from cancer cells and infiltrating immune cells contains myofibroblasts (MFs) that express aSMA and Vimentin. As we observed that increased NF-κB activation and inflammation correlates with increased MF recruitment and an accelerated phenotype we here analyze the role of NF-κB in MF during esophageal carcinogenesis in our L2-IL-1B mouse model. To analyze the effect of NF-κB signaling in MFs, we crossed L2-IL-1B mice to tamoxifen inducible Vim-Cre (Vim-CreTm) mice and floxed RelA (p65fl/fl) mice to specifically eliminate NF-κB signaling in MF (IL-1b.Vim-CreTm.p65fl/fl). The interaction of epithelial cells and stromal cells was further analyzed in mouse BE organoids and patient-derived human organoids. Histological scoring of IL-1b.Vim-CreTm.p65fl/fl mice showed a significantly attenuated phenotype compared with L2-IL-1B mice, with mild inflammation, decreased metaplasia and no dysplasia. This correlated with decreased proliferation and increased differentiation in cardia tissue of IL-1b.Vim-CreTm.p65fl/fl compared with L2-IL-1B mice. Distinct changes of cytokines and chemokines within the local microenvironment in IL-1b.Vim-CreTm.p65fl/fl mice reflected the histopathological abrogated phenotype. Co-cultured NF-κB inhibitor treated MF with mouse BE organoids demonstrated NF-κB-dependent growth and migration. MFs are essential to form an inflammatory and procarcinogenic microenvironment and NF-κB signaling in stromal cells emerges as an important driver of esophageal carcinogenesis. Our data suggest anti-inflammatory approaches as preventive strategies during surveillance of BE patients.

CXC Chemokines as Therapeutic Targets and Prognostic Biomarkers in Skin Cutaneous Melanoma Microenvironment

Background

Skin Cutaneous Melanoma (SKCM) is a tumor of the epidermal melanocytes induced by gene activation or mutation. It is the result of the interaction between genetic, constitutional, and environmental factors. SKCM is highly aggressive and is the most threatening skin tumor. The incidence of the disease is increasing year by year, and it is the main cause of death in skin tumors around the world. CXC chemokines in the tumor microenvironment can regulate the transport of immune cells and the activity of tumor cells, thus playing an anti-tumor immunological role and affecting the prognosis of patients. However, the expression level of CXC chemokine in SKCM and its effect on prognosis are still unclear.

Method

Oncomine, UALCAN, GEPIA, STRING, GeneMANIA, cBioPortal, TIMER, TRRUST, DAVID 6.8, and Metascape were applied in our research.

Result

The transcription of CXCL1, CXCL5, CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL13 in SKCM tissues were significantly higher than those in normal tissues. The pathological stage of SKCM patients is closely related to the expression of CXCL4, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL12, and CXCL13. The prognosis of SKCM patients with low transcription levels of CXCL4, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13 is better. The differential expression of CXC chemokines is mainly associated with inflammatory response, immune response, and cytokine mediated signaling pathways. Our data indicate that the key transcription factors of CXC chemokines are RELA, NF-κB1 and SP1. The targets of CXC chemokines are mainly LCK, LYN, SYK, MAPK2, MAPK12, and ART. The relationship between CXC chemokine expression and immune cell infiltration in SKCM was closed.

Conclusions

Our research provides a basis for screening SKCM biomarkers, predicting prognosis, and choosing immunotherapy.

Endothelial YAP/TAZ Signaling in Angiogenesis and Tumor Vasculature

Solid tumors are dependent on vascularization for their growth. The hypoxic, stiff, and pro-angiogenic tumor microenvironment induces angiogenesis, giving rise to an immature, proliferative, and permeable vasculature. The tumor vessels promote tumor metastasis and complicate delivery of anti-cancer therapies. In many types of tumors, YAP/TAZ activation is correlated with increased levels of angiogenesis. In addition, endothelial YAP/TAZ activation is important for the formation of new blood and lymphatic vessels during development. Oncogenic activation of YAP/TAZ in tumor cell growth and invasion has been studied in great detail, however the role of YAP/TAZ within the tumor endothelium remains insufficiently understood, which complicates therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting YAP/TAZ in cancer. Here, we overview the upstream signals from the tumor microenvironment that control endothelial YAP/TAZ activation and explore the role of their downstream targets in driving tumor angiogenesis. We further discuss the potential for anti-cancer treatments and vascular normalization strategies to improve tumor therapies.

Visfatin Enhances Breast Cancer Progression through CXCL1 Induction in Tumor-Associated Macrophages

Visfatin, an adipocytokine highly expressed in breast tumor tissues, is associated with breast cancer progression. Recent studies showed that adipocytokines mediate tumor development through adipocytokine tumor-stromal interactions in the tumor microenvironment. This study focused on the interaction between one key stromal constituent-tumor-associated macrophages-and visfatin. Pretreatment of THP-1 and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with recombinant visfatin resulted in M2-polarization determined by CD163 and CD206 expression. Indirect co-culture with visfatin-treated THP-1 (V-THP-1) promoted the viability, migration, tumorsphere formation, EMT, and stemness of breast cancer cells. Cytokine array identified an increased CXCL1 secretion in V-THP-1 conditioned medium and recombinant CXCL1 enhanced cell migration and invasion, which were abrogated by the CXCL1-neutralizing antibody. Additionally, visfatin induced pERK in THP-1 cells and clinical samples confirmed a positive CXCL1/pERK correlation. In an orthotopic mouse model, the tumor bioluminescent signal of luciferase-expressing MDA-MB-231 (Luc-MDA-MB-231) cells co-cultured with V-THP-1 and the expression of proliferation marker Ki67 were significantly higher than that co-cultured with THP-1. Furthermore, tail vein-injected Luc-MDA-MB-231 pretreated with V-PBMCs conditioned medium metastasized to lungs more frequently compared to control, and this was reversed by CXCL1 blocking antibody. In summary, this study demonstrated that visfatin enhanced breast cancer progression via pERK/CXCL1 induction in macrophages.

Histone methyltransferase SETD2 inhibits tumor growth via suppressing CXCL1-mediated activation of cell cycle in lung adenocarcinoma

The histone H3 lysine 36 methyltransferase SET-domain-containing 2 (SETD2) has been reported to be frequently mutated or deleted in many types of human cancer. However, the role of SETD2 in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) has not been well documented. In the present study, we found that SETD2 was significantly down-regulated both in LUAD tissues and cell lines. Functionally, the increased expression of SETD2 significantly attenuated the proliferation of cancer cells by affecting the cell cycle, whereas SETD2 deficiency dramatically improved these proliferative abilities of cancer cells. Through conjoint analysis of RNA-seq and ChIP data, we identified a functional target gene of SETD2, CXCL1, and its expression was negatively correlated with that of SETD2. Moreover, SETD2 deletion stimulated cell cycle-related proteins to promote LUAD. Further mechanistic studies demonstrated that histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation (H3K36me3) catalyzed by SETD2 interacted with the promoter of CXCL1 to regulate its transcription and downstream signaling pathways, contributing to tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. Our findings suggested that SETD2 inhibited tumor growth via suppressing CXCL1-mediated activation of cell cycle, indicating that the regulation of H3K36me3 level by targeting SETD2 and/or the administration of downstream CXCL1 might represent a potential therapeutic way for new treatment in LUAD.

Comprehensive analysis of the expression and prognostic value of CXC chemokines in colorectal cancer

The C-X-C motif (CXC) chemokines play an important role in inflammatory processes and angiogenesis and are also associated with tumor development, progression and metastasis. They can be either promoting or inhibiting factors in colorectal cancers (CRC). The expression patterns and prognostic values of the CXC family still need further investigation. In this study, we investigated data related to transcription, translation, survival and tumor immune infiltration for CXC chemokines in patients with CRC from the ONCOMINE, GEPIA, cBioPortal, HPA and TIMER databases. We found that the expression levels of CXCL1-3, CXCL5, and CXCL8 were higher in CRC tissues than in colorectal tissues. Expression among stages significantly varied for CXCL1-3 and CXCL9-11. The survival analysis revealed that high transcriptional levels of CXCL4 and CXCL9-11 could serve as positive prognostic factors for patients with CRC. CXCL9-11 were highly associated with CD8+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells in the tumor immune infiltration analysis, indicating their role in the antitumor immune response. This study implies that CXCL1-3, CXCL5, and CXCL8 are important factors during CRC oncogenesis and that CXCL9-11 could be new biomarkers for the prognosis of CRC.

Transcriptomics-Based Characterization of the Toxicity of ZnO Nanoparticles Against Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Cells

INTRODUCTION

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have recently attracted attention as potential anti-cancer agents. To the best of our knowledge, the toxicity of ZnO NPs against human chronic myeloid leukemia cells (K562 cell line) has not been studied using transcriptomics approach.

OBJECTIVE

The goals of this study were to evaluate the capability of ZnO NPs to induce apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia cells (K562 cells) and to investigate the putative mechanisms of action.

METHODS

We used viability assay and flowcytometry coupled with Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide to investigate the toxicity of ZnO NPs on K562 cells and normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Next we utilized a DNA microarray-based transcriptomics approach to characterize the ZnO NPs-induced changes in the transcriptome of K562 cells.

RESULTS

ZnO NPs exerted a selective toxicity (mainly by apoptosis) on the leukemic cells (p≤0.005) and altered their transcriptome; 429 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with fold change (FC)≥4 and p≤0.008 with corrected p≤0.05 were identified in K562 cells post treatment with ZnO NPs. The over-expressed genes were implicated in "response to zinc", "response to toxic substance" and "negative regulation of growth" (corrected p≤0.05). In contrast, the repressed genes positively regulated "cell proliferation", "cell migration", "cell adhesion", "receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT" and "phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling" (corrected p≤0.05). Lowering the FC to ≥1.5 with p≤0.05 and corrected p≤0.1 showed that ZnO NPs over-expressed the anti-oxidant defense system, drove K562 cells to undergo mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis, and targeted NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings support the earlier studies that reported anti-cancer activity of ZnO NPs and revealed possible molecular mechanisms employed by ZnO NPs to induce apoptosis in K562 cells.

The Significance of CXCL1 and CXCL8 as Well as Their Specific Receptors in Colorectal Cancer

Every year, almost 2 million people develop colorectal cancer (CRC), which makes it the fourth most common malignancy worldwide. It is also estimated that approximately 48% of CRC patients will die from the disease. Thus, noninvasive and accurate methods for early detection and prevention of CRC are sorely needed. It is suggested that C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1) and C-X-C motif ligand 8 (CXCL8) as well as their cognate receptors can mediate tumor growth, proliferation, survival, neoangiogenesis and metastasis of malignant cells, including CRC. However, little is known about the clinical significance of these proteins as potential biomarkers for CRC. Therefore, in our review, we performed a comprehensive literature search using the PubMed database to identify original articles that investigated whether CXCL1 and CXCL8 and their receptors play a role in CRC pathogenesis. In summary, our review highlighted the potential significance of CXCL1/CXCR2 and CXCL8/CXCR1,-2 in the diagnosis and progression of CRC as well as indicated their potential therapeutic significance. However, given the non-specific nature of analyzed chemokines and a small number of studies concerning the assessment of blood concentration of these proteins in CRC patients, investigations need to be continued in the future before selected chemokines could be established as biomarkers for CRC.

CXCL1/CXCR2 Paracrine Axis Contributes to Lung Metastasis in Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma, the most common of all bone malignancies, has a high likelihood of lung metastasis. Up until now, the molecular mechanisms involved in osteosarcomas with lung metastases are not clearly understood. Recent observations have shown that the chemokine CXCL1 and its receptor CXCR2 assist with the homing of neutrophils into the tumor microenvironment. Here, we show that the CXCL1/CXCR2 paracrine axis is crucial for lung metastasis in osteosarcoma. In an in vivo lung metastasis model of osteosarcoma, lung blood vessels expressed CXCL1 and osteosarcoma cells expressed the CXCR2 receptor. CXCR2 expression was higher in osteosarcoma cell lines than in normal osteoblast cells. Immunohistochemistry staining of clinical osteosarcoma specimens revealed positive correlations between CXCR2 expression and pathology stage and also vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) expression. High levels of CXCL1 secreted by human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAECs) promoted osteosarcoma cell mobility, which was mediated by the upregulation of VCAM-1 expression. When HPAECs-conditioned media was incubated in osteosarcoma cells, we observed that the CXCR2 receptor and FAK/PI₃K/Akt/NF-κB signaling cascade were required for VCAM-1 expression. Our findings illustrate a molecular mechanism of lung metastasis in osteosarcoma and indicate that CXCL1/CXCR2 is worth targeting in treatment schemas.

ROR-α-1 inhibits the proliferation, invasion, and migration of hepatocellular carcinoma MHCC97H via downregulation of chemokine CXCL5

Hepatocarcinogenesis is a complicated process that is affected by a variety of microenvironmental factors, such as secretory chemokines and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM). Retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor (ROR)-α has been shown to attenuate tumor invasiveness by inducing suppressive cell microenvironment, and its low expression was associated with a worse prognosis in HCC patients. In the present study, we attempted to investigate the role and mechanism of the dominant transcript of ROR-α, ROR-α-1, in HCC development and progression. Among the four transcripts (ROR-α-1/-2/-3/-4), overexpression of ROR-α-1 dramatically suppressed the capacity of MHCC97H cells to proliferate, migrate and invade. We analyzed the differentially expressed genes in ROR-α-1-overexpressed and non-overexpressed MHCC97H cells, performed Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis on these differentially-expressed genes, and found out that factors involved in the tumor microenvironment and ECM are related to the anti-tumor effects of ROR-α-1. Among these factors, chemokine CXCL5 was significantly downregulated by ROR-α-1 overexpression. Overexpression of ROR-α-1 remarkably inhibited the capacity of HCC cells to proliferate, migrate, invade, and downregulated the protein levels of β-catenin, c-Myc, Cyclin D1, and N-cadherin, suggesting the tumor-suppressive role of ROR-α-1 in MHCC97H cells. Moreover, overexpression of CXCL5 dramatically attenuated the suppressive effects of cell proliferation, migration and invasion induced by ROR-α-1 overexpression in MHCC97H, suggesting that ROR-α-1 exerts its anti-tumor effects via downregulating CXCL5. In conclusion, we demonstrate the tumor-suppressive role of ROR-α-1 in MHCC97H cells and that ROR-α-1 might play a tumor-suppressive role via regulation of chemokine CXCL5.

Topoisomerase inhibitors promote cancer cell motility via ROS-mediated activation of JAK2-STAT1-CXCL1 pathway

Background

Topoisomerase inhibitors (TI) can inhibit cell proliferation by preventing DNA replication, stimulating DNA damage and inducing cell cycle arrest. Although these agents have been commonly used in the chemotherapy for the anti-proliferative effect, their impacts on the metastasis of cancer cells remain obscure.

Methods

We used the transwell chamber assay to test effects of Topoisomerase inhibitors Etoposide (VP-16), Adriamycin (ADM) and Irinotecan (CPT-11) on the migration and invasion of cancer cells. Conditioned medium (CM) from TI-treated cells was subjected to Mass spectrometry screening. Gene silencing, neutralizing antibody, and specific chemical inhibitors were used to validate the roles of signaling molecules.

Results

Our studies disclosed that TI could promote the migration and invasion of a subset of cancer cells, which were dependent on chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1). Further studies disclosed that TI enhanced phosphorylation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and Signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1). Silencing or chemical inhibition of JAK2 or STAT1 abrogated TI-induced CXCL1 expression and cell motility. Moreover, TI increased cellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoted oxidation of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), while reduced glutathione (GSH) reversed TI-induced JAK2-STAT1 activation, CXCL1 expression, and cell motility.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that TI can promote the expression and secretion of CXCL1 by elevating ROS, inactivating PTP1B, and activating JAK2-STAT1 signaling pathway, thereby promoting the motility of cancer cells.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13046-019-1353-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The prognostic value of CXC subfamily ligands in stage I-III patients with colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the value of CXC subfamily ligands in stage I-III patients with colorectal cancer, in order to find a new predictor for CRC patients.

METHODS

We used Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to collect the gene expression of CXC subfamily ligands and corresponding clinical data. The survival analysis was performed by "survival" package of Rsoftware. The CRC patients' DFS and the relationship between the expression levels of CXC subfamily ligands were evaluated by the univariate Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

By using microarray data, there were 14 CXC subfamily ligands identified from dataset GSE39582. Seven CXC subfamily ligands were significantly correlated with DFS in CRC patients. (p<0.05),including CXCL1, CXCL3, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL13, and CXCL14. From multivariate Cox regression analyze, four CXC subfamily ligands (CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13) were significantly associated with CRC patients' DFS (all p<0.05). Three CXC subfamily ligands (CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13) were significantly associated with CRC patients' Overall survival (OS) (all p<0.05). Both CXCL11 and CXCL13 had the similar prediction values for DFS and OS.

CONCLUSION

There were seven CXC subfamily ligands were significantly correlated with DFS in CRC patients. Different expression level of four CXC subfamily ligands (CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13) and Three CXC subfamily ligands (CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL13) were related to CRC patients' DFS and OS. There are still needs more experiments to confirm our conclusions. Next step we will make animal experiment about the genes in order to verified the predictive value of the CXC subfamily ligands.

CXC family of chemokines as prognostic or predictive biomarkers and possible drug targets in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in men and the second most common cancer in women, worldwide. In the early stages of the disease, biomarkers predicting early relapse would improve survival rates. In metastatic patients, the use of predictive biomarkers could potentially result in more personalized treatments and better outcomes. The CXC family of chemokines (CXCL1 to 17) are small (8 to 10 kDa) secreted proteins that attract neutrophils and lymphocytes. These chemokines signal through chemokine receptors (CXCR) 1 to 8. Several studies have reported that these chemokines and receptors have a role in either the promotion or inhibition of cancer, depending on their capacity to suppress or stimulate the action of the immune system, respectively. In general terms, activation of the CXCR1/CXCR2 pathway or the CXCR4/CXCR7 pathway is associated with tumor aggressiveness and poor prognosis; therefore, the specific inhibition of these receptors is a possible therapeutic strategy. On the other hand, the lesser known CXCR3 and CXCR5 axes are generally considered to be tumor suppressor signaling pathways, and their stimulation has been suggested as a way to fight cancer. These pathways have been studied in tumor tissues (using immunohistochemistry or measuring mRNA levels) or serum [using enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA) or multiplexing techniques], among other sample types. Common variants in genes encoding for the CXC chemokines have also been investigated as possible biomarkers of the disease. This review summarizes the most recent findings on the role of CXC chemokines and their receptors in CRC and discusses their possible value as prognostic or predictive biomarkers as well as the possibility of targeting them as a therapeutic strategy.

Low tumor infiltrating mast cell density confers prognostic benefit and reflects immunoactivation in colorectal cancer

The role of mast cells (MCs) in colorectal cancer (CRC) progression was controversial. Thus, our study was designed to evaluate the prognostic value of MCs as well as their correlation with immune microenvironment. A retrospective cohort of CRC patients of stages I-IV was enrolled in our study. Consecutive patients (854) were divided into training set (427 patients) and validation set (427 patients) randomly. The findings were further validated in a GEO cohort, GSE39582 (556 patients). The mast cell density (MCD) was measured by immunohistochemical staining of tryptase or by CIBERSORT algorithm. Low MCD predicted prolonged overall survival (OS) in training and validation set. Moreover, MCD was identified as an independent prognostic indicator in both sets. Better stratification for CRC prognosis can be achieved by building a MCD based nomogram. The prognostic role of MCD was further validated in GSE39582. In addition, MCD predicted improved survival in stages II and III CRC patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy (ACT). Multiple immune pathways were enriched in low MCD group while cytokines/chemokines promoting anti-tumor immunity were highly expressed in such group. Furthermore, MCD was negatively correlated with CD8+ T cells infiltration. In conclusion, MCD was identified as an independent prognostic factor, as well as a potential biomarker for ACT benefit in stages II and III CRC. Better stratification of CRC prognosis could be achieved by building a MCD based nomogram. Moreover, immunoactivation in low MCD tumors may contributed to improved prognosis.

Colony stimulating factor 1 receptor blockade improves the efficacy of chemotherapy against human neuroblastoma in the absence of T lymphocytes

Tumor-associated macrophages can promote growth of cancers. In neuroblastoma, tumor-associated macrophages have greater frequency in metastatic versus loco-regional tumors, and higher expression of genes associated with macrophages helps to predict poor prognosis in the 60% of high-risk patients who have MYCN-non-amplified disease. The contribution of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes to anti-neuroblastoma immune responses may be limited by low MHC class I expression and low exonic mutation frequency. Therefore, we modelled human neuroblastoma in T-cell deficient mice to examine whether depletion of monocytes/macrophages from the neuroblastoma microenvironment by blockade of CSF-1R can improve the response to chemotherapy. In vitro, CSF-1 was released by neuroblastoma cells, and topotecan increased this release. In vivo, neuroblastomas formed by subcutaneous co-injection of human neuroblastoma cells and human monocytes into immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice had fewer human CD14⁺ and CD163⁺ cells and mouse F4/80⁺ cells after CSF-1R blockade. In subcutaneous or intra-renal models in immunodeficient NSG or NOD/SCID mice, CSF-1R blockade alone did not affect tumor growth or mouse survival. However, when combined with cyclophosphamide plus topotecan, the CSF-1R inhibitor BLZ945, either without or with anti-human and anti-mouse CSF-1 mAbs, inhibited neuroblastoma growth and synergistically improved mouse survival. These findings indicate that depletion of tumor-associated macrophages from neuroblastomas can be associated with increased chemotherapeutic efficacy without requiring a contribution from T-lymphocytes, suggesting the possibility that combination of CSF-1R blockade with chemotherapy might be effective in patients who have limited anti-tumor T-cell responses.

Uev1A-Ubc13 promotes colorectal cancer metastasis through regulating CXCL1 expression via NF-кB activation

Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Uncontrolled growth and distant metastasis are hallmarks of colorectal cancer. However, the precise etiological factors and the mechanisms are diverse and still largely unclear. The potential proto-oncogene UEV1A encodes a ubiquitin conjugating enzyme variant, which is required for Ubc13-catalyzed K63-linked poly-ubiquitination of target proteins and the activation of NF-кB, a transcription factor known to be involved in innate immunity, anti-apoptosis, inflammation and cancer. In order to understand the roles of Uev1A in colon cancer progression, we experimentally manipulated the Uev1A level in HCT116 colon cancer cells and found that UEV1A overexpression alone is sufficient to promote invasion in vitro and metastasis in vivo. This process is mediated by NF-κB activation and depends on its physical interaction with Ubc13. No expression of Uev1A was detected in histologically normal human colonic mucosa, but its expression was detected in human colorectal adenocarcinoma, which was closely correlated with nuclear p65 levels, an indicator of NF-κB activation. Uev1A protein was detected in 46% of primary tumors and 79% of metastatic tumors examined. Our experimental data establish that among NF-κB target genes, Uev1A-regulated CXCL1 expression plays a critical role in colon cell invasion and metastasis, a notion supported by the colon adenocarcinoma survey. Furthermore, experimental depletion of Uev1 in HCT116 cells reduces CXCL1 expression, and prevents cell invasion and tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model. These results identify Uev1A as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancers.

CXCL1 induces senescence of cancer-associated fibroblasts via autocrine loops in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have emerged as one of the main factors related to cancer progression, however, the conversion mechanism of normal fibroblasts (NOFs) to CAFs has not been well elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the underlying mechanism of CAF transformation from NOFs in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). This study found that NOFs exposed to OSCC cells transformed to senescent cells. The cytokine antibody array showed the highest secretion levels of IL-6 and CXCL1 in NOFs co-cultured with OSCC cells. Despite that both IL-6 and CXCL1 induced the senescent phenotype of CAFs, CXCL1 secretion showed a cancer-specific response to transform NOFs into CAFs in OSCC, whereas IL-6 secretion was eventuated by common co-culture condition. Further, CXCL1 was released from NOFs co-cultured with OSCC cells, however, CXCL1 was undetectable in mono-cultured NOFs or co-cultured OSCC cells with NOFs. Taken together, this study demonstrates that CXCL1 can transform NOFs into senescent CAFs via an autocrine mechanism. These data might contribute to further understanding of CAFs and to development of a potential therapeutic approach targeting cancer cells-CAFs interactions.

TNFα induces tolerant production of CXC chemokines in colorectal cancer HCT116 cells via A20 inhibition of ERK signaling

Ubiquitin editing enzyme A20 functions as a tumor suppressor in various cancer. However, the mechanism for A20 regulation of cancer progress is not fully understood. In this study, we found that in human colorectal cancer HCT116 cells, TNFα induced a tolerant production of CXC chemokines, including CXCL1, 2, and 8 in a dose and time dependent manner. TNFα pre-treatment of HCT116 cells down-regulated the chemokine production induced by TNFα re-treatment. TNFα induced the phosphorylation of MAPKs ERK, JNK, P38 and NF-κB P65, but only ERK inhibition decreased TNFα-induced chemokine production. Both RT-PCR and FACS results showed that TNFα treatment did not regulate the expression of TNF receptors. However, TNFα up-regulated the expression of A20 at both mRNA and protein levels significantly. TNFα pre-treatment inhibited the signal transduction of MAPKs induced by TNFα re-stimulation, and A20 over-expression decreased the signal transduction of ERK and P38. Meanwhile, A20 inhibition by RNA interference reversed chemokine down-regulation induced by TNFα re-stimulation after TNFα pre-treatment. Taken together, these results suggested that in human colorectal cancer cells, A20 may function to inhibit cancer progression via down-regulation of TNFα-induced chemokine production by suppression of ERK signaling.

GROα overexpression drives cell migration and invasion in triple negative breast cancer cells

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of highly aggressive breast cancer with poor prognosis. The main characteristic feature of TNBC is its lack of expression of ER, PR and HER2 receptors that are targets for treatments. Hence, it is imperative to identify novel therapeutic strategies to target TNBC. Our aim was to examine whether GROα is a specific marker for TNBC metastasis. For this we performed qPCR, ELISA, migration/invasion assays, western blotting, and siRNA transfections. Evaluation of baseline GROα expression in different breast cancer (BC) subtypes showed that it is significantly upregulated in breast tumor cells, specifically in TNBC cell line. On further evaluation in additional 17 TNBC cell lines we found that baseline GROα expression was significantly elevated in >50% of the cell lines validating GROα overexpression specifically in TNBC cells. Moreover, GROα-stimulation in MCF7 and SKBR3 cells and GROα-knockdown in MDA-MB-231 and HCC1937 cells elicited dramatic changes in migration and invasion abilities in vitro. Corresponding changes in EMT markers were also observed in phenotypically modified BC cells. Furthermore, mechanistic studies identified GROα regulating EMT markers and migration/invasion via MAPK pathway and specific inhibition using PD98059 resulted in the reversal of effects induced by GROα on BC cells. In conclusion, our study provides strong evidence to suggest that GROα is a critical modulator of TNBC migration/invasion and proposes GROα as a potential therapeutic target for treatment of TNBC metastasis.

Human hepatic stellate cells and inflammation: A regulated cytokine network balance

AIM

Uncertainty about the safety of cell therapy continues to be a major challenge to the medical community. Inflammation and the associated immune response represent a major safety concern hampering the development of long-term clinical therapy. In vivo interactions between the cell graft and the host immune system are mediated by functional environmental sensors and stressors that play significant roles in the immunobiology of the graft. Within this context, human liver stellate cells (HSC) demonstrated marked immunological plasticity that has main importance for future liver cell therapy application.

METHODS

By using qPCR technique, we established the cytokine gene expression profile of HSCs and investigated the effect of an inflammatory environment on the immunobiology of HSCs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

HSCs present a specific immunological profile as demonstrated by the expression and modulation of major immunological cytokines. Under constitutive conditions, the cytokine pattern expressed by HSCs was characterized by the high expression of IL-6. Inflammation critically modulated the expression of major immunological cytokines. As evidenced by the induction of the expression of several inflammatory genes, HSCs acquire a pro-inflammatory profile that ultimately might have critical implications for their immunological shape.

CONCLUSION

These new observations have to be taken into account in any future liver cell therapy application based on the use of HSCs.

The lung metastatic niche

Cancer cells that succeed in forming lung metastases need to survive in a foreign microenvironment and to protect themselves against immune surveillance. Lung metastatic niches facilitate this process. They can develop as pre-metastatic niches by inflammatory events that are provoked by primary tumors before tumor cell arrival, and/or they can be post-formed by reciprocal signaling between metastasizing tumor cells and local non-tumor cells. Primary tumor-derived factors induce expression of chemokines in the lungs to which bone marrow-derived myeloid cells are recruited. These cells work in concert with lung-specific resident cells to establish pre-metastatic niches. The role of the endogenous TLR4-dependent innate immune system in pre-metastatic niche formation illustrates this point. During lung infection, endotoxin induces inflammation by increasing vascular permeability and leukocyte mobilization to the lungs through the endotoxin receptor TLR4 that is expressed in endothelial cells and leukocytes, respectively. This innate immune system can be hijacked by primary tumors to generate a pre-metastatic niche. Specifically, primary tumor-produced chemokine CCL2 works in an endocrine manner to induce pulmonary overexpression of endogenous TLR4 ligands such as S100A8 and SAA3 resulting in lung inflammation similar to that caused by endotoxin. An endotoxin analog Eritoran inhibits pre-metastatic niche formation in this system.

Elevated expression of growth-regulated oncogene-alpha in tumor and stromal cells predicts unfavorable prognosis in pancreatic cancer

Growth-regulated oncogene-alpha (GRO-α) has been reported to be over-expressed in a series of human cancers including colorectal cancer, melanoma, gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and ovarian cancer and was known to regulate multiple biologic activities associated with tumor progression. But the role in human pancreatic cancer remains unclear. To examine the expression of GRO-α and its clinical significance in pancreatic cancer (PC), a total of 12 fresh PC specimens and 12 surrounding normal tissues to detect GRO-α mRNA expression were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Immunohistochemical analysis of GRO-α protein was performed in 160 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded PC tissue samples and 68 control specimens, including 37 matched normal surgical margins and 31 benign pancreatic lesions. Kaplan-Meier survival and Cox regression analyses were performed to evaluate the prognosis of PC patients.Expression of GRO-α mRNA in PC tissues was significantly compared with that in adjacent normal tissues (1.399 ± 0.165 vs. 0.870 ± 0.103 t = 1.75, P = 0.012), GRO-α protein expression in cytoplasm of cancer cells and stroma was detected in 41.88% and 40.63% PC specimens, respectively, and was significantly higher than that in corresponding normal tissues (P = 0.008, P = 0.002, respectively). High GRO-α expression in the cytoplasm of cancer cells was related to tumor location (P = 0.047), tumor status (T classification; P = 0.001), distant metastasis (P < 0.001), and tumor node metastasis (TNM) stage (P < 0.001). High GRO-α expression in the stroma correlated with perineural invasion (P = 0.010), T classification (P = 0.006) and TNM stage (P = 0.004), and was marginally associated with metastasis (P = 0.056). Elevated expression of GRO-α in cytoplasm of cancer cells (hazard ratio [HR] = 5.730, P = 0.007) and stroma (HR = 3.120, P = 0.022) were independent prognostic factors of pancreatic cancer. T classification (HR = 2.130, P = 0.023), lymphatic metastasis (HR = 4.211, P = 0.009) and TNM classification (HR = 0.481, P = 0.031) were also prognostic predictors in PC patients.GRO-α expression was elevated in pancreatic cancer tissues and might be a potential therapeutic target and prognostic marker in patients with pancreatic cancer.

Tumor-Derived CXCL1 Promotes Lung Cancer Growth via Recruitment of Tumor-Associated Neutrophils

Neutrophils have a traditional role in inflammatory process and act as the first line of defense against infections. Although their contribution to tumorigenesis and progression is still controversial, accumulating evidence recently has demonstrated that tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) play a key role in multiple aspects of cancer biology. Here, we detected that chemokine CXCL1 was dramatically elevated in serum from 3LL tumor-bearing mice. In vitro, 3LL cells constitutively expressed and secreted higher level of CXCL1. Furthermore, knocking down CXCL1 expression in 3LL cells significantly hindered tumor growth by inhibiting recruitment of neutrophils from peripheral blood into tumor tissues. Additionally, tumor-infiltrated neutrophils expressed higher levels of MPO and Fas/FasL, which may be involved in TAN-mediated inhibition of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. These results demonstrate that tumor-derived CXCL1 contributes to TANs infiltration in lung cancer which promotes tumor growth.

CXCL1 mediates obesity-associated adipose stromal cell trafficking and function in the tumour microenvironment

White adipose tissue (WAT) overgrowth in obesity is linked with increased aggressiveness of certain cancers. Adipose stromal cells (ASCs) can become mobilized from WAT, recruited by tumours and promote cancer progression. Mechanisms underlying ASC trafficking are unclear. Here we demonstrate that chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL8 chemoattract ASC by signalling through their receptors, CXCR1 and CXCR2, in cell culture models. We further show that obese patients with prostate cancer have increased epithelial CXCL1 expression. Concomitantly, we observe that cells with ASC phenotype are mobilized and infiltrate tumours in obese patients. Using mouse models, we show that the CXCL1 chemokine gradient is required for the obesity-dependent tumour ASC recruitment, vascularization and tumour growth promotion. We demonstrate that αSMA expression in ASCs is induced by chemokine signalling and mediates the stimulatory effects of ASCs on endothelial cells. Our data suggest that ASC recruitment to tumours, driven by CXCL1 and CXCL8, promotes prostate cancer progression.

Adipose stromal cells (ASC) have been shown to migrate to tumours and promote tumour growth. Using animal models and human tissue samples, the authors show here that ASC recruitment to prostate cancers is mediated by the chemokine CXCL1, which is secreted from tumour cells, and acts on CXCR1 on ASCs.

The Role of Chemokines in Promoting Colorectal Cancer Invasion/Metastasis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Although most of the primary CRC can be removed by surgical resection, advanced tumors sometimes show recurrences in distant organs such as the liver, lung, lymph node, bone or peritoneum even after complete resection of the primary tumors. In these advanced and metastatic CRC, it is the tumor-stroma interaction in the tumor microenvironment that often promotes cancer invasion and/or metastasis through chemokine signaling. The tumor microenvironment contains numerous host cells that may suppress or promote cancer aggressiveness. Several types of host-derived myeloid cells reside in the tumor microenvironment, and the recruitment of them is under the control of chemokine signaling. In this review, we focus on the functions of chemokine signaling that may affect tumor immunity by recruiting several types of bone marrow-derived cells (BMDC) to the tumor microenvironment of CRC.

Structural ECM components in the premetastatic and metastatic niche

The aim of this review is to give an overview of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components that are important for creating structural changes in the premetastatic and metastatic niche. The successful arrival and survival of cancer cells that have left the primary tumor and colonized distant sites depends on the new microenvironment they encounter. The primary tumor itself releases factors into the circulation that travel to distant organs and then initiate structural changes, both non-enzymatic and enzymatic, to create a favorable niche for the disseminating tumor cells. Therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting cell-ECM interactions may well be one of the best viable approaches to combat metastasis and thus improve patient care.

Significant hepatic expression of IL-2 and IL-8 in biliary atresia compared with other neonatal cholestatic disorders

OBJECTIVES

Although the exact etiology of biliary atresia (BA) is still elusive, inflammation plays a key role. Release of proinflammatory cytokines from activated immune cells perpetuates the injury and causes biliary destruction. We aimed to study interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-8 expression in liver tissue of BA patients compared with other neonatal cholestatic disorders.

METHODS

The study included 59 infants with neonatal cholestasis in two groups; BA group (n=31) and non-BA group (n=28) with cholestatic disorders other than BA as controls. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, and histopathological parameters were collected. IL-2 and IL-8 immunostaining was performed. Immunostaining in portal cellular infiltrate was scored as positive or negative and expressed as the mean cell count in three portal tracts.

RESULTS

The mean value of IL-2 and IL-8 positive inflammatory cells was significantly higher in BA than in non-BA group (P-values of 0.004 and 0.002 respectively). IL-2 correlated significantly with IL-8 immunostaining in both BA and non-BA group (P<0.0001 for both). Furthermore, both cytokines in both groups correlated significantly with inflammatory activity in liver biopsy while there was no significant correlation with the other studied parameters. Yet, there was a trend of increased expression of IL-2 and IL-8 with increasing stage of fibrosis in BA group. This trend was not observed in non-BA group.

CONCLUSION

The significantly higher expression of IL-2 and IL-8 in patients with BA compared to non-BA suggests a potential role for these cytokines in the pathogenesis in therapy of this devastating neonatal hepatic disorder.

Activation of NLRP3 inflammasome enhances the proliferation and migration of A549 lung cancer cells

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death, and it is widely accepted that chronic inflammation is an important risk for the development of lung cancer. Now, it is recognized that the nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NOD) like receptors (NLRs)-containing inflammasomes are involved in cancer-related inflammation. This study was designed to investigate the effects of NLR family pyrin domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome on the proliferation and migration of lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549. Using 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation assay, scratch assay, and Transwell migration assay, we showed that activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by LPS+ATP enhanced the proliferation and migration of A549 cells. Western blot analysis showed that activation of phosphorylation of Akt, ERK1/2, CREB and the expression of Snail increased, while the expression of E-cadherin decreased after the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Moreover, these effects were inhibited by the following treatments: i) downregulating the expression of NLRP3 by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) interference, ii) inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome with a caspase-1 inhibitor, iii) blocking the interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 signal transduction with IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and IL-18 binding protein (IL-18BP). Collectively, these results indicate that NLRP3 inflammasome plays a vital role in regulating the proliferation and migration of A549 cells and it might be a potential target for the treatment of lung cancer.

Arterial endothelial cytokines guide extravillous trophoblast invasion towards spiral arteries; an in-vitro study with the trophoblast cell line ACH-3P and female non-uterine endothelial cells

INTRODUCTION

Invasion of extravillous trophoblasts (EVT) is tightly linked to appropriate cell to cell contact as well as paracrine guidance of EVT by maternal uterine cells, conducted by a variety of locally expressed cytokines. Here we investigated the interaction of the first trimester trophoblast cell line ACH-3P with adult iliac arterial (AEC) and venous endothelial cells (VEC).

METHODS

The impact of ACH-3P conditioned medium (Cdm), obtained at 2.5% and 21% oxygen, on endothelial cell viability (LDH-Assay) and network formation (Matrigel-Assay) was tested. We investigated cytokine expression of AEC- and VEC-Cdm and confirmed results with ELISA analysis, and investigated the influence of Cdm on ACH-3P proliferation and invasion. Additionally, direct co-culture experiments with ACH-3P and AEC on Matrigel were performed. A subset of experiments was verified with primary trophoblasts as well as with first trimester placenta in situ specimens.

RESULTS

ACH-3P-Cdm significantly enhanced cell viability of AEC and VEC after 72 h. ACH-3P-Cdm at 2.5% oxygen stabilized endothelial network structures in Matrigel up to 24 h, similar to the effect of a direct co-culture of AEC and ACH-3P. AEC and VEC showed a similar pattern of secreted cytokines. However, elevated levels of cytokines secreted by AEC were found for GRO, IL-6, MMP-1 and uPAR. ELISA confirmed elevated concentrations of IL-6 and uPAR in AEC compared to VEC. ACH-3P and primary trophoblasts more likely invaded towards AEC-Cdm than towards VEC-Cdm. Addition of IL-6 to Cdm increased the invasion potential of both cell types. AEC- and VEC-Cdm reduced ACH-3P cell proliferation after 24 h of culture. IL-6 was highly expressed in uterine AEC compared to VEC as visualized by immunohistochemistry.

DISCUSSION

The presented results clearly demonstrate that cytokines of both cell types, AEC and trophoblasts, differentially contribute to successful guidance and interaction in the process of trophoblast invasion.

Endostatin inhibits the tumorigenesis of hemangioendothelioma via downregulation of CXCL1

Hemangioendotheliomas could be repressed by various anti-angiogenic agents in animal models. It was unclear whether the agents target hemangioendothelioma cells directly. This study elucidated the mechanism by which endostatin inhibited hemangioendothelioma progression. Expression of the endostatin receptors nucleolin and integrin α5β1 in hemangioendothelioma was assessed by immunohistochemistry. The effects of endostatin on the hemangioendothelioma-derived cells (EOMA) were evaluated by proliferation and apoptosis assays and by angiogenesis array screening. This revealed the contribution of the Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1) to hemangioendothelioma progression, which was explored in vitro and in vivo. The clinical relevance of CXCL1 expression in hemangioendothelioma was also evaluated using tissue array. EOMA cells expressed nucleolin and integrin α5β1 and bound to endostatin. Endostatin did not alter proliferation or hypoxia-induced apoptosis in EOMA cells but it did impair the pro-angiogenic capacity of the cells. Endothelial cell migration was induced by CXCL1 produced by EOMA cells and endostatin downregulated CXCL1 production by inactivating its transcriptional factor, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). In vivo, the knockdown of CXCL1 significantly impaired EOMA cell growth in nude mice; endostatin had no effect when CXCL1 was overexpressed. A strong correlation was observed between CXCL1 levels and hemangioendothelioma occurrence in patients. CXCL1, which was responsible for hemangioendothelioma progression by stimulating angiogenesis, was impaired by endostatin via inactivation of NF-κB in an animal model. In vascular lesions in patients, CXCL1 expression was a negative prognostic factor. CXCL1-inhibting agents such as endostatin may constitute a useful approach to treat the malignant or intermediate vascular lesions.