Measures of frontal functioning and the emergence of inhibitory control processes at 10 months of age

How does sensitivity influence early executive function? A critical review on hot and cool processes

There is compelling evidence that the quality of caregiver-child interactions during toddlerhood and the preschool years supports the development of executive function (EF) (Bernier et al., 2010; 2015; 2016; Fay-Stammbach et al., 2014; Geeraerts et al., 2021). Based on such findings, we make the case herein that sensitivity may be one of the most important dimensions of parenting contributing to early EF. In the present article, we will review empirical evidence, integrating findings from a wide range of scientific disciplines - cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and developmental psychopathology - and present theoretical ideas about how two contexts of sensitive caregiving - i.e. sensitivity to distress and non-distress cues - may be contributing differently to hot and cool EF development. Implications for future investigations on the environmental contributors of early EF, and its mechanisms, are discussed.

Maternal age differences in cognitive regulation: examination of associations and interactions between RSA and EEG frontoparietal alpha power coherence

Strong cognitive regulation is advantageous for flexible, responsive parenting. Optimal cognitive regulation is reliant on associations between physiological mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system functioning. Across middle adulthood there may be shifts in how cognitive regulation functions, reflecting changes in the associations and interactions between these physiological mechanisms. Two physiological indicators of cognitive regulation are autonomic regulation of the heart (e.g., respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA) and activity of the brain's frontoparietal network (e.g., frontoparietal EEG alpha power coherence, FPc). In the current study we examined maternal age differences (N = 90, age M = 32.35 years, SD = 5.86 years) in correlations and interactions between RSA and FPc in the statistical prediction of cognitive regulation [i.e., executive function (EF), effortful control (EC), cognitive reappraisal (CR)]. Age-related patterns involving interaction between RSA and FPc were found, pointing to a potential shift from optimization to compensation for changes with aging or alternately, the effects of age-based decrements in functioning. Findings are discussed in the context of adult developmental changes in maternal caregiving.

Using the Flanker Task to Examine Genetic and Environmental Contributions in Inhibitory Control Across the Preschool Period

The limited research exploring genetic and environmental influences on inhibitory control (IC) in preschoolers has relied on parent ratings or simple delay tasks and has produced mixed results. The present study uses a cognitively-challenging Flanker task to examine genetic and environmental contributions to the development of early IC in a longitudinal sample of 310 same-sex twin pairs (123 MZ; 187 DZ; 51% female) assessed at ages 3, 4 and 5 years. IC was significantly heritable at each age (a²: age 3 = .36; age 4 = .36; age 5 = .35). Stability was entirely accounted for by genetic influences, and change was explained by genetic and nonshared environmental factors. No significant shared environmental influences were observed.

Self-regulation and frontal EEG alpha activity during infancy and early childhood: A multilevel meta-analysis

Integrating behavioral and neurophysiological measures has created new and advanced ways to understand the development of self-regulation. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used to examine how self-regulatory processes are related to frontal alpha power during infancy and early childhood. However, findings across previous studies have been inconsistent. To address this issue, the current meta-analysis synthesized all prior literature examining associations between individual differences in self-regulation and frontal EEG alpha power (baseline and/or task). In total, 23 studies consisting of 1275 participants between 1 month and 6 years of age were included, which yielded 149 effect sizes. Findings of the three-level meta-analytic model demonstrated a non-significant overall association between self-regulation and frontal alpha power. Yet, significant moderating effects were found for self-regulation construct (emotion regulation, effortful control, executive function), self-regulation measurement (behavioral task, computer assessment, lab observation, questionnaire), and children's mean age. Self-regulation was only significantly correlated with frontal alpha power when studies focused on the executive functioning construct. Moreover, the use of behavioral tasks or questionnaires and a higher mean age of the children resulted in small but significant effect size estimates. Higher frontal alpha power values were related to higher order top-down mechanisms of self-regulation, indicating that these mechanisms might become stronger when the frontal cortex is sufficiently developed. The findings of the current meta-analysis highlight the importance of longitudinal analyses and multimethod approaches in future work to reach a more comprehensive understanding of the role of frontal EEG alpha activity in the etiology of individual differences in early self-regulation. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The first meta-analysis of individual differences in self-regulation and frontal EEG alpha power during infancy and early childhood demonstrated a non-significant overall association. Moderation analyses revealed that variations in frontal alpha power were significantly associated with executive function, but not with effortful control and emotion regulation. Frontal alpha power was related to variations in self-regulation when measured by behavioral tasks and questionnaires, but not via computer assessments and lab observations. The association between individual differences in self-regulation and frontal alpha power becomes significantly stronger with age.

The neural correlates of inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Inhibitory control, a core executive function, emerges in infancy and develops rapidly across childhood. Methodological limitations have meant that studies investigating the neural correlates underlying inhibitory control in infancy are rare. Employing functional near-infrared spectroscopy alongside a novel touchscreen task that measures response inhibition, this study aimed to uncover the neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants (N = 135). We found that when inhibition was required, the right prefrontal and parietal cortices were more activated than when there was no inhibitory demand. This demonstrates that inhibitory control in infants as young as 10 months of age is supported by similar brain areas as in older children and adults. With this study we have lowered the age-boundary for localising the neural substrates of response inhibition to the first year of life.

Prenatal internalizing symptoms as a mediator linking maternal adverse childhood experiences with infant temperament

BACKGROUND

Maternal adverse childhood experiences are known to significantly influence offspring development. However, mediators linking maternal early-life adversity with infant temperament remain largely unknown.

AIMS

The current study investigated whether prenatal internalizing symptoms mediate the association between maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant temperament at two months. Maternal sensitivity/responsiveness during the postpartum period was also examined as a moderator of these associations.

STUDY DESIGN

We used a repeated-measures design, with self-report measures administered during pregnancy. Self-report and observational data were also collected at 2 months postpartum.

SUBJECTS

The study included a community sample of 64 pregnant women and their infants.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Participants completed measures assessing their early-life adversity and current depression/anxiety symptoms. At two months postpartum, mothers reported on their infant's temperament and participated in a parent-child interaction task designed to assess maternal sensitivity/responsiveness.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Maternal adverse childhood experiences indirectly predicted poor self-regulation during early infancy via prenatal internalizing symptoms. Maternal sensitivity/responsiveness was also found to moderate the association between maternal adverse childhood experiences and certain aspects of infant regulatory capacity and positive affectivity at two months. This research has implications for mental health screening procedures during pregnancy and the development of early intervention programs.

Cognitive flexibility in 12-month-old preterm and term infants is associated with neurobehavioural development in 18-month-olds

There is growing evidence that preterm children are at an increased risk of poor executive functioning, which underlies behavioural and attention problems. Previous studies have suggested that early cognitive flexibility is a possible predictor of later executive function; however, how it develops in infancy and relates to the later neurobehavioural outcomes is still unclear in the preterm population. Here, we conducted a longitudinal study to investigate oculomotor response shifting in 27 preterm and 25 term infants at 12 months and its relationship with general cognitive development and effortful control, which is a temperamental aspect closely associated with executive function, at 18 months. We found that moderate to late preterm and term infants significantly inhibited previously rewarded look responses, while very preterm infants did not show significant inhibition of perseverative looking at 12 months. Moreover, lower inhibition of perseverative looking was significantly associated with lower general cognitive development and attentional shifting at 18 months. These findings suggest that the early atypical patterns of oculomotor response shifting may be a behavioural marker for predicting a higher risk of negative neurobehavioural outcomes, including attention-related problems in preterm children.

Towards an integrated account of the development of self-regulation from a neurocognitive perspective: A framework for current and future longitudinal multi-modal investigations

Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and modulate emotions, behaviour, and cognition in order to adapt to changing circumstances. Developing adequate self-regulation is associated with better social coping and higher educational achievement later in life; poor self-regulation has been linked to a variety of detrimental developmental outcomes. Here, we focus on the development of neurocognitive processes essential for self-regulation. We outline a conceptual framework emphasizing that this is inherently an integrated, dynamic process involving interactions between brain maturation, child characteristics (genetic makeup, temperament, and pre- and perinatal factors) and environmental factors (family characteristics, parents and siblings, peers, and broader societal influences including media development). We introduce the Consortium of Individual Development (CID), which combines a series of integrated large-scale, multi-modal, longitudinal studies to take essential steps towards the ultimate goal of understanding and supporting this process.

Dynamic modulation of frontal theta power predicts cognitive ability in infancy

Cognitive ability is a key factor that contributes to individual differences in life trajectories. Identifying early neural indicators of later cognitive ability may enable us to better elucidate the mechanisms that shape individual differences, eventually aiding identification of infants with an elevated likelihood of less optimal outcomes. A previous study associated a measure of neural activity (theta EEG) recorded at 12-months with non-verbal cognitive ability at ages two, three and seven in individuals with older siblings with autism (Jones et al., 2020). In a pre-registered study (https://osf.io/v5xrw/), we replicate and extend this finding in a younger, low-risk infant sample. EEG was recorded during presentation of a non-social video to a cohort of 6-month-old infants and behavioural data was collected at 6- and 9-months-old. Initial analyses replicated the finding that frontal theta power increases over the course of video viewing, extending this to 6-month-olds. Further, individual differences in the magnitude of this change significantly predicted non-verbal cognitive ability measured at 9-months, but not early executive function. Theta change at 6-months-old may therefore be an early indicator of later cognitive ability. This could have important implications for identification of, and interventions for, children at risk of poor cognitive outcomes.

Using the delayed spatial alternation task to assess environmentally associated changes in working memory in very young children

BACKGROUND

Working memory (WM) is critical for problem solving and reasoning. Beginning in infancy, children show WM capacity increasing with age but there are few validated tests of WM in very young children. Because rapid brain development may increase susceptibility to adverse impacts of prenatal neurotoxicant exposure, such as lead, tests of WM in very young children would help to delineate onset of developmental problems and windows of susceptibility.

PURPOSE

Our objective was to assess the feasibility of administering a Delayed Spatial Alternation Task (DSAT) to measure WM among 18- and 24-month old children enrolled in an ongoing longitudinal birth cohort study and compare DSAT performance with age and general cognitive development. We further explored whether prenatal lead exposure impacted DSAT performance.

METHODS

We assessed 457 mother-child pairs participating in the Programming Research in Obesity, GRowth, Environment and Social Stressors (PROGRESS) Study in Mexico City. The DSAT and Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-III) were administered at 18- and 24-months. Lead was measured in maternal blood collected during pregnancy (MBPb) and in a subsample of children at 24-months (CBPb). We regressed DSAT measures on MBPb and CBPb, child sex, and maternal age, education, socioeconomic status, and household smoking. We compared DSAT performance to BSID-III performance with adjusted residuals.

RESULTS

24-month children perform better on the DSAT than 18-month children; 24-month subjects reached a higher level on the DSAT (3.3 (0.86) vs. 2.4 (0.97), p < 0.01), and had a higher number of correct responses (20.3 vs. 17.2, p < 0.01). In all DSAT parameters, females performed better than males. Maternal education predicted better DSAT performance; household smoking predicted worse DSAT performance. A higher number of correct responses was associated with higher BSID-III Cognitive scales at 18 months (r = 0.20, p < 0.01) and 24 months (r = 0.27, p < 0.01). MBPb and CPBb did not significantly predict DSAT performance.

CONCLUSION

Improved performance on the DSAT with increasing age, the positive correlation with the BSID-III cognitive and language scales and the correlation with common sociodemographic predictors of neurodevelopment demonstrate the validity of the DSAT as a test of infant development.

Inhibitory control and temporal perception in cerebral palsy

Prepotent response inhibition and temporal perception abilities were explored in a sample of individuals with cerebral palsy relative to typically developing peers. The extent to which inhibitory control difficulties might affect temporal processing was also investigated. For this purpose, two inhibitory control tasks and two duration estimation tasks were given to the groups of cerebral palsy and typically developing children. Results showed inhibition and temporal perception problems in the group with cerebral palsy. A relationship was found between inhibition and temporal estimation performances, which indicates that inhibitory control contributes, at least partially, to acquisition of the temporal processing ability.

Primary headaches during lifespan

Primary headaches are one of the most prevalent neurological disorders and can occur during a wide range of lifespan. Primary headaches, especially migraine, are cyclic disorders with a complex sequence of symptoms within every headache attack. There is no systematic review of whether these symptoms changes during lifespan. Indeed, the clinical presentation of migraine shows an age-dependent change with a significantly shorter duration of the attacks and occurrence of different paroxysmal symptoms, such as vomiting, abdominal pain or vertigo, in childhood and, in contrast, largely an absence of autonomic signs and a more often bilateral headache in the elderly. The age-dependent differences in the clinical presentation are less distinct in cluster headache and, especially, in tension-type headache. The differences in the clinical presentation are in agreement with the idea that the connectivity of hypothalamic areas with different brainstem areas, especially the central parasympathetic areas, is important for the clinical manifestation of migraine, as well as, the change during lifespan.

Maternal childhood emotional abuse predicts Chinese infant behavior problems: Examining mediating and moderating processes

The current study examined the mediating effect of maternal negative expressiveness as well as the moderating effects of infant inhibitory control (IC) in the association between maternal childhood emotional abuse (CEA) and infant behavior problems. Drawing from 207 families from mainland China, 2-wave data were reported in this study when the infants were 6 months (T1) and 14 (T2) months. Mothers (Mean age = 32.85 years, SD = 4.04) reported their CEA on the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF) at T1, and their negative expressiveness on the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire (SEFQ) at T2. The Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) and a reverse categorization task were used to measure infant behavior problems and IC at T2, respectively. The results showed that T1 maternal CEA, rather than physical and sexual abuse, uniquely predicted T2 negative expressiveness. Maternal negative expressiveness significantly mediated the positive relations of maternal CEA and infant externalizing, internalizing and dysregulation problems. In addition, the moderated mediation model showed that the association between maternal negative expressiveness and infant dysregulation problems was moderated by infant IC. Specifically, the mediating pathway from maternal CEA to dysregulation problems through maternal negative expressiveness was significant, only for infants with poor IC. The results were robust even after controlling for family socio-economic status (SES), maternal childhood physical and sexual abuse. The importance of mediating and moderating processes in understanding the effect of maternal emotional abuse during childhood on infant behavior problems is discussed.

Off to a Good Start: The Early Development of the Neural Substrates Underlying Visual Working Memory

Current neuroscientific models describe the functional neural architecture of visual working memory (VWM) as an interaction of the frontal-parietal control network and more posterior areas in the ventral visual stream (Jonides et al., 2008; D'Esposito and Postle, 2015; Eriksson et al., 2015). These models are primarily based on adult neuroimaging studies. However, VWM undergoes significant development in infancy and early childhood, and the goal of this mini-review is to examine how recent findings from neuroscientific studies of early VWM development can be reconciled with this model. We surveyed 29 recent empirical reports that present neuroimaging findings in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers (using EEG, fNIRS, rs-fMRI) and neonatal lesion studies in non-human primates. We conclude that (1) both the frontal-parietal control network and the posterior cortical storage areas are active from early infancy; (2) this system undergoes focalization and some reorganization during early development; (3) and the MTL plays a significant role in this process as well. Motivated by both theoretical and methodological considerations, we offer some recommendations for future directions for the field.

Empathy-Related Responding in Chinese Toddlers: Factorial Structure and Cognitive Contributors

The critical role of the second year of life in the development of empathy is well accepted by psychologists. However, the developmental trends of the different components of empathy and the potential factors underlying these components during this critical period remain unclear. Eighty‐four Chinese toddlers in the second year of life participated in the present study. Empathy‐related responses were observed during three simulated procedures performed by each child's primary caregiver, the experimenter and a baby doll. An exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the different components of empathy. The shared representation of the self and others was measured using the Tasks for the Observation of Self‐Concept, self/other awareness was measured with a series of mirror tests and inhibitory control was measured using the Cylinder Inhibitory Control Task. The results showed that the empathy of Chinese toddlers contains three factors: sympathy, personal distress and orientation. Potential cognitive factors contribute to the different components of empathy through both independent and joint effects. © 2016 The Authors Infant and Child Development Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Quantifying Motor Experience in the Infant Brain: EEG Power, Coherence, and Mu Desynchronization

The emergence of new motor skills, such as reaching and walking, dramatically changes how infants engage with the world socially and cognitively. Several examples of how motor experience can cascade into cognitive and social development have been documented, yet a significant knowledge gap remains in our understanding of whether these observed behavioral changes are accompanied by underlying neural changes. We propose that electroencephalography (EEG) measures such as power, coherence, and mu desynchronization are optimal tools to quantify motor experience in the infant brain. In this mini-review, we will summarize existing infant research that has separately assessed the relation between motor, cognitive, or social development with coherence, power, or mu desynchronization. We will discuss how the reviewed neural changes seen in seemingly separate developmental domains may be linked based on existing behavioral evidence. We will further propose that power, coherence, and mu desynchronization be used in research exploring the links between motor experience and cognitive and social development.

A Longitudinal Perspective on the Association between Cognition and Temperamental Shyness

Moderate, yet relatively consistent, associations between cognitive performance and shyness have been reported throughout the child and adult literatures. The current study assessed longitudinal associations between cognition (i.e., executive functioning) and parent-report temperamental shyness from infancy to early childhood and used temporal order to explore directionality of the relations. Two hundred eleven children contributed data at multiple ages (5-months, 10-months, 2-years, 3-years, and 4-years). The results indicated a complex pattern of association between cognition and shyness in early development and provided tentative support for both cognitive ability and temperament as causal agents at different developmental time points.

Toward a cross-species understanding of empathy

Although signs of empathy have now been well documented in non-human primates, only during the past few years have systematic observations suggested that a primal form of empathy exists in rodents. Thus, the study of empathy in animals has started in earnest. Here we review recent studies indicating that rodents are able to share states of fear, and highlight how affective neuroscience approaches to the study of primary-process emotional systems can help to delineate how primal empathy is constituted in mammalian brains. Cross-species evolutionary approaches to understanding the neural circuitry of emotional 'contagion' or 'resonance' between nearby animals, together with the underlying neurochemistries, may help to clarify the origins of human empathy.