1
|
Happ DF, Tasker RA. Effects of α7 Nicotinic Receptor Activation on Cell Survival in Rat Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures. Neurotox Res 2017; 33:887-895. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9854-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
2
|
Berry JN, Saunders MA, Sharrett-Field LJ, Reynolds AR, Bardo MT, Pauly JR, Prendergast MA. Corticosterone enhances N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor signaling to promote isolated ventral tegmental area activity in a reconstituted mesolimbic dopamine pathway. Brain Res Bull 2015; 120:159-65. [PMID: 26631585 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Elevations in circulating corticosteroids during periods of stress may influence activity of the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway by increasing glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor expression and/or function in a glucocorticoid receptor-dependent manner. The current study employed organotypic co-cultures of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) to examine the effects of corticosterone exposure on NMDA receptor-mediated neuronal viability. Co-cultures were pre-exposed to vehicle or corticosterone (CORT; 1 μM) for 5 days prior to a 24 h co-exposure to NMDA (200 μM). Co-cultures pre-exposed to a non-toxic concentration of corticosterone and subsequently NMDA showed significant neurotoxicity in the VTA only. This was evidenced by increases in propidium iodide uptake as well as decreases in immunoreactivity of the neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN). Co-exposure to the NMDA receptor antagonist 2-amino-7-phosphonovaleric acid (APV; 50 μM) or the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist mifepristone (10 μM) attenuated neurotoxicity. In contrast, the combination of corticosterone and NMDA did not produce any significant effects on either measure within the NAcc. Cultures of the VTA and NAcc maintained without synaptic contact showed no response to CORT or NMDA. These results demonstrate the ability to functionally reconstitute key regions of the mesolimbic reward pathway ex vivo and to reveal a GR-dependent enhancement of NMDA receptor-dependent signaling in the VTA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N Berry
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States.
| | - Meredith A Saunders
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| | - Lynda J Sharrett-Field
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| | - Anna R Reynolds
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| | - Michael T Bardo
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| | - James R Pauly
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| | - Mark A Prendergast
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States; Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Biomedical and Biological Sciences Research Building, 741 S. Limestone St., Lexington, KY 40536-0509, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wiren KM. Males and females are just different: Sexually dimorphic responses to chronic ethanol exposure in hippocampal slice cultures. Neurosci Lett 2013; 550:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
4
|
Morimoto Y, Zhang Q, Adachi K. Effects of memantine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, on fatigue and neuronal brain damage in a rat model of combined (physical and mental) fatigue. Biol Pharm Bull 2012; 35:481-6. [PMID: 22466550 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.35.481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Most of the fatigue in everyday life is a combination of physical and mental fatigue. Recently, an animal model of combined fatigue was designed by housing rats in a cage filled with water. We have previously hypothesized that mental fatigue is caused partly by neuronal brain damage through the activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors by quinolinic acid (QUIN), a metabolite of tryptophan (TRP). Therefore, we investigated whether the same mechanism also participates in combined fatigue. Rats were housed for 5 d under water-immersed conditions, and the extent of fatigue was evaluated by a weight-loaded forced swimming test. The swimming time of the water-immersed group was shorter than that of the control group, indicating that rats were fatigued by water-immersion. However, unexpectedly, the blood and brain levels of QUIN in the water-immersed group were lower than those of the control group. QUIN levels in both the blood and brains of a food-restricted nonimmersed group, where body weight was matched with the water-immersed group, were also decreased, suggesting that decreased QUIN in the water-immersed group originated from a reduced intake of TRP-containing food. On the other hand, hippocampal neuronal damage was shown in the water-immersed group, similar to that seen in other fatigue models where QUIN increased. Memantine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, inhibited not only the reduction in swimming times but also the neuronal damage induced by water-immersion. These results suggest that neuronal brain damage by an endogenous NMDA receptor agonist other than QUIN participates in combined fatigue by water immersion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasuo Morimoto
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma, Ltd., Takaoka, Toyama, Japan.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Thomas JD, Idrus NM, Monk BR, Dominguez HD. Prenatal choline supplementation mitigates behavioral alterations associated with prenatal alcohol exposure in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 88:827-37. [PMID: 20706995 DOI: 10.1002/bdra.20713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prenatal alcohol exposure can alter physical and behavioral development, leading to a range of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Despite warning labels, pregnant women continue to drink alcohol, creating a need to identify effective interventions to reduce the severity of alcohol's teratogenic effects. Choline is an essential nutrient that influences brain and behavioral development. Recent studies indicate that choline supplementation can reduce the teratogenic effects of developmental alcohol exposure. The present study examined whether choline supplementation during prenatal ethanol treatment could mitigate the adverse effects of ethanol on behavioral development. METHODS Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were intubated with 6 g/kg/day ethanol in a binge-like manner from gestational days 5-20; pair-fed and ad libitum chow controls were included. During treatment, subjects from each group were intubated with either 250 mg/kg/day choline chloride or vehicle. Spontaneous alternation, parallel bar motor coordination, Morris water maze, and spatial working memory were assessed in male and female offspring. RESULTS Subjects prenatally exposed to alcohol exhibited delayed development of spontaneous alternation behavior and deficits on the working memory version of the Morris water maze during adulthood, effects that were mitigated with prenatal choline supplementation. Neither alcohol nor choline influenced performance on the motor coordination task. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that choline supplementation during prenatal alcohol exposure may reduce the severity of fetal alcohol effects, particularly on alterations in tasks that require behavioral flexibility. These findings have important implications for children of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Thomas
- Center for Behavioral Teratology, Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, 6363 Alvarado Court, San Diego, CA 92120, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Biasi E. Effects of postnatal dietary choline manipulation against MK-801 neurotoxicity in pre- and postadolescent rats. Brain Res 2010; 1362:117-32. [PMID: 20846509 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal supplementation of rat dams with dietary choline has been shown to provide their offspring with neuroprotection against N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist-mediated neurotoxicity. This study investigated whether postnatal dietary choline supplementation exposure for 30 and 60 days of rats starting in a pre-puberty age would also induce neuroprotection (without prenatal exposure). Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats (postnatal day 30 of age) were reared for 30 or 60 concurrent days on one of the four dietary levels of choline: 1) fully deficient choline, 2) 1/3 the normal level, 3) the normal level, or 4) seven times the normal level. After diet treatment, the rats received one injection of MK-801 (dizocilpine 3mg/kg) or saline control. Seventy-two hours later, the rats were anesthetized and transcardially perfused. Their brains were then postfixed for histology with Fluorojade-C (FJ-C) staining. Serial coronal sections were prepared from a rostrocaudal direction from 1.80 to 4.2mm posterior to the bregma to examine cell degeneration in the retrosplenial and piriform regions. MK-801, but not control saline, produced significant numbers of FJ-C positive neurons, indicating considerable neuronal degeneration. Dietary choline supplementation or deprivation in young animals reared for 30-60days did not alter NMDA antagonist-induced neurodegeneration in the retrosplenial region. An interesting finding is the absence of the piriform cortex involvement in young male rats and the complete absence of neurotoxicity in both hippocampus regions and DG. However, neurotoxicity in the piriform cortex of immature females treated for 60days appeared to be suppressed by low levels of dietary choline.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Biasi
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Thomas JD, Abou EJ, Dominguez HD. Prenatal choline supplementation mitigates the adverse effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on development in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009; 31:303-11. [PMID: 19616089 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2009.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2008] [Revised: 06/30/2009] [Accepted: 07/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal alcohol exposure can lead to a range of physical, neurological, and behavioral alterations referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Variability in outcome observed among children with FASD is likely related to various pre- and postnatal factors, including nutritional variables. Choline is an essential nutrient that influences brain and behavioral development. Recent animal research indicates that prenatal choline supplementation leads to long-lasting cognitive enhancement, as well as changes in brain morphology, electrophysiology and neurochemistry. The present study examined whether choline supplementation during ethanol exposure effectively reduces fetal alcohol effects. Pregnant dams were exposed to 6.0g/kg/day ethanol via intubation from gestational days (GD) 5-20; pair-fed and lab chow controls were included. During treatment, subjects from each group received choline chloride (250mg/kg/day) or vehicle. Physical development and behavioral development (righting reflex, geotactic reflex, cliff avoidance, reflex suspension and hindlimb coordination) were examined. Subjects prenatally exposed to alcohol exhibited reduced birth weight and brain weight, delays in eye opening and incisor emergence, and alterations in the development of all behaviors. Choline supplementation significantly attenuated ethanol's effects on birth and brain weight, incisor emergence, and most behavioral measures. In fact, behavioral performance of ethanol-exposed subjects treated with choline did not differ from that of controls. Importantly, choline supplementation did not influence peak blood alcohol level or metabolism, indicating that choline's effects were not due to differential alcohol exposure. These data indicate early dietary supplements may reduce the severity of some fetal alcohol effects, findings with important implications for children of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Thomas
- Department of Psychology, Center for Behavioral Teratology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92120, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Guseva MV, Hopkins DM, Scheff SW, Pauly JR. Dietary choline supplementation improves behavioral, histological, and neurochemical outcomes in a rat model of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2008; 25:975-83. [PMID: 18665805 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2008.0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel pharmacological approaches that safely and effectively lessen the degree of neurological impairment following traumatic brain injury (TBI) are sorely needed. Non-invasive approaches that could be used over an extended periods of time might be particularly useful. Previous studies from our lab have hypothesized that TBI-induced decreases in hippocampal and cortical alpha7 neuronal nicotinic cholinergic receptor (nAChR) expression might contribute to cognitive impairment that follows brain injury. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the low-potency, but selective alpha7 nAChR agonist choline might be a useful treatment for improvement of neurological outcome in a rat model of TBI. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to control or choline-supplemented diets for 2 weeks prior to experimental brain injury (1.5-mm cortical contusion injury) and throughout the recovery phase. Dietary choline supplementation resulted in a modest degree of improvement in spatial memory as assessed in the Morris water maze test. In addition, choline treatment resulted in significant cortical tissue sparing, reduced brain inflammation, and normalized some TBI-induced deficits in nAChR expression. The results of this study suggest that alpha7 nAChR agonists may be useful drugs to enhance recovery following brain injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria V Guseva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0082, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Leret ML, Lecumberri M, Garcia-Montojo M, González JC. Role of maternal corticosterone in the development and maturation of the aminoacidergic systems of the rat brain. Int J Dev Neurosci 2007; 25:465-71. [PMID: 17890040 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2007.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2007] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 08/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested an important role for maternal glucocorticoids in the development of the aminoacidergic systems of the rat brain. This study examines the effect of metyrapone (2-methyl-1,2-di-3-pyridyl-1-propanone), i.p.-administered to gestating mothers, on the maturation of the aminoacidergic systems of their offsprings' brains. gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate concentrations were determined in male and female offspring at postnatal days (PN) 23 and 90 in four brain areas: the hippocampus, hypothalamus, striatum and cortex. The activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), the most important enzyme in the synthesis of GABA, was also analysed. The results show that a reduction in maternal corticosterone during gestation leads to a reduced GABAergic content in all brain areas studied at PN23; permanent organizational changes occurred in the cortex, striatum and hypothalamus. Maternal metyrapone treatment also affected the development of the glutamatergic systems, females being more affected than males at both PN23 and PN90 particularly in the hypothalamus and cortex. The metyrapone treatment produced no changes in GAD activity at PN23, but induced an important increase in this activity at PN90.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Luisa Leret
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Jose Antonio Novais 2, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Mulholland PJ, Self RL, Hensley AK, Little HJ, Littleton JM, Prendergast MA. A 24 h corticosterone exposure exacerbates excitotoxic insult in rat hippocampal slice cultures independently of glucocorticoid receptor activation or protein synthesis. Brain Res 2006; 1082:165-72. [PMID: 16510135 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.01.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2005] [Revised: 01/18/2006] [Accepted: 01/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Elevations in circulating concentrations of glucocorticoids (GC) may increase the expression and/or sensitivity of ionotropic transmitter receptors in brain. For example, recent evidence suggests that acute and chronic GC exposure may alter the number and/or function of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors, effects that may sensitize the brain to excitotoxic insults. The present studies examined the ability of short-term (24 h) corticosterone (CORT) exposure to potentiate NMDA-induced cytotoxicity in rat hippocampal slice cultures. Additional studies evaluated the role of mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) function, as well as de novo protein synthesis, in potentiation of toxicity by corticosterone exposure. Hippocampal slice cultures were exposed to NMDA (20 microM) for 24 h with cytotoxicity assessed by fluorescent detection of propidium iodide uptake. Exposure to NMDA caused significant propidium iodide uptake in each hippocampal region, while 24 h CORT (0.001-1 microM) exposure alone did not significantly increase propidium iodide uptake. Co-exposure of cultures to CORT and NMDA synergistically increased propidium iodide uptake in each hippocampal region, effects that were prevented by co-exposure to a non-toxic concentration of MK-801 (20 microM). In contrast, 24 h exposure with the MR antagonist spironolactone (1-10 microM), the GR antagonist RU-486 (1-10 microM), or the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (1 microM) failed to reduce the significant increase in propidium iodide uptake. These data suggest that relatively brief elevations in CORT levels may sensitize the hippocampus to injury independently of GC receptor activity and protein synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Mulholland
- Department of Psychology, 012-I Kastle Hall, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40506-0044, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sadgrove MP, Laskowski A, Gray WP. Examination of granule layer cell count, cell density, and single-pulse brdu incorporation in rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures with respect to culture medium, septotemporal position, and time in vitro. J Comp Neurol 2006; 497:397-415. [PMID: 16736467 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus is assuming an increasingly important role in supporting hippocampal-dependent learning and the modulation of mood and anxiety. Moreover, injury to the developing postnatal dentate gyrus has profound effects on neurogenesis and hippocampal learning throughout life. Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures represent an attractive model for studying neurogenesis both in the early postnatal and adult hippocampus, as they retain much of their anatomical and functional circuitry in vitro. Ongoing neurogenesis has been recently demonstrated in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. However, cell proliferation, one of the critical components of neurogenesis, has yet to be characterized in this culture system. We examined single-pulse S-phase bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling in the dentate granule layer with respect to the septotemporal position of origin of the slice culture, the medium the cultures were grown in, and the time the cultures were maintained in vitro up to 14 days, when they are believed to have matured to a near adult state. Using single 10-microm sections through a culture as our reference volume, we report significant effects of septotemporal position on the number of granule layer cells and the number of cells in S-phase, as estimated by short-survival (2 hours) BrdU studies. We report a declining rate of BrdU incorporation, evidence of significant structural changes within the granule cell layer, and differences in cell death between culture media over the first 14 days in vitro. We report caution with the use of BrdU cell density and changes in cell number to indirectly estimate proliferation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P Sadgrove
- Division of Clinical Neurosciences, Southampton Neurosciences Group, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7PX, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mulholland PJ, Self RL, Harris BR, Little HJ, Littleton JM, Prendergast MA. Corticosterone Increases Damage and Cytosolic Calcium Accumulation Associated With Ethanol Withdrawal in Rat Hippocampal Slice Cultures. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:871-81. [PMID: 15897733 DOI: 10.1097/01.alc.0000163509.27577.da] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that stress hormones (i.e., glucocorticoids) may be increased during acute or chronic consumption of ethanol and during withdrawal from ethanol consumption, effects that may contribute to the development of cognitive impairment. The goal of the current studies was to examine the hypothesis that increased glucocorticoid levels in conjunction with ethanol exposure and withdrawal may cause hippocampal damage. METHODS Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures were exposed to 50 mM ethanol for 10 days and withdrawn for 1 day. After withdrawal, cytotoxicity and cytosolic Ca2+ accumulation were measured using the nucleic acid stain propidium iodide and Calcium Orange, AM, respectively. Cultures were also treated with nontoxic concentrations of corticosterone (0.001-1 microM) during ethanol exposure and withdrawal or only during withdrawal. Additional cultures were coexposed to corticosterone and RU486 (0.1-10.0 microM), spironolactone (0.1-10.0 microM), or MK-801 (20 microM) during ethanol exposure and/or withdrawal. RESULTS Ethanol withdrawal did not increase propidium iodide fluorescence and cytosolic Ca2+ levels. However, significant increases in propidium iodide fluorescence and in cytosolic Ca2+ accumulation were observed in cultures when corticosterone (> or = 100 nM) was exposed during ethanol treatment and/or withdrawal. These effects of corticosterone on ethanol withdrawal were attenuated by RU486 and MK-801 but not by spironolactone coexposure. CONCLUSIONS This report demonstrated that corticosterone exposure during ethanol treatment and/or withdrawal resulted in significant hippocampal damage, possibly via activation of glucocorticoid receptors and enhancement of the glutamatergic cascade. The findings from these studies suggest that glucocorticoids contribute to the neuropathological consequences of alcohol dependence in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Mulholland
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|