Meiotic Cells Counteract Programmed Retrotransposon Activation via RNA-Binding Translational Repressor Assemblies

The retrotransposon-derived capsid genes PNMA1 and PNMA4 maintain reproductive capacity

The human genome contains 24 gag-like capsid genes derived from deactivated retrotransposons conserved among eutherians. Although some of their encoded proteins retain the ability to form capsids and even transfer cargo, their fitness benefit has remained elusive. Here we show that the gag-like genes PNMA1 and PNMA4 support reproductive capacity during aging. Analysis of donated human ovaries shows that expression of both genes declines normally with age, while several PNMA1 and PNMA4 variants identified in genome-wide association studies are causally associated with low testosterone, altered puberty onset, or obesity. Six-week-old mice lacking either Pnma1 or Pnma4 are indistinguishable from wild-type littermates, but by six months the mutant mice become prematurely subfertile, with precipitous drops in sex hormone levels, gonadal atrophy, and abdominal obesity; overall they produce markedly fewer offspring than controls. These findings expand our understanding of factors that maintain human reproductive health and lend insight into the domestication of retrotransposon-derived genes.

The retrotransposon - derived capsid genes PNMA1 and PNMA4 maintain reproductive capacity

The human genome contains 24 gag -like capsid genes derived from deactivated retrotransposons conserved among eutherians. Although some of their encoded proteins retain the ability to form capsids and even transfer cargo, their fitness benefit has remained elusive. Here we show that the gag -like genes PNMA1 and PNMA4 support reproductive capacity. Six-week-old mice lacking either Pnma1 or Pnma4 are indistinguishable from wild-type littermates, but by six months the mutant mice become prematurely subfertile, with precipitous drops in sex hormone levels, gonadal atrophy, and abdominal obesity; overall they produce markedly fewer offspring than controls. Analysis of donated human ovaries shows that expression of both genes declines normally with aging, while several PNMA1 and PNMA4 variants identified in genome-wide association studies are causally associated with low testosterone, altered puberty onset, or obesity. These findings expand our understanding of factors that maintain human reproductive health and lend insight into the domestication of retrotransposon-derived genes.

Meiosis in budding yeast

Meiosis is a specialized cell division program that is essential for sexual reproduction. The two meiotic divisions reduce chromosome number by half, typically generating haploid genomes that are packaged into gametes. To achieve this ploidy reduction, meiosis relies on highly unusual chromosomal processes including the pairing of homologous chromosomes, assembly of the synaptonemal complex, programmed formation of DNA breaks followed by their processing into crossovers, and the segregation of homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division. These processes are embedded in a carefully orchestrated cell differentiation program with multiple interdependencies between DNA metabolism, chromosome morphogenesis, and waves of gene expression that together ensure the correct number of chromosomes is delivered to the next generation. Studies in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have established essentially all fundamental paradigms of meiosis-specific chromosome metabolism and have uncovered components and molecular mechanisms that underlie these conserved processes. Here, we provide an overview of all stages of meiosis in this key model system and highlight how basic mechanisms of genome stability, chromosome architecture, and cell cycle control have been adapted to achieve the unique outcome of meiosis.

Kar4 is required for the normal pattern of meiotic gene expression

Kar4p, the yeast homolog of the mammalian methyltransferase subunit METTL14, is required for efficient mRNA m6A methylation, which regulates meiotic entry. Kar4p is also required for a second seemingly non-catalytic function during meiosis. Overexpression of the early meiotic transcription factor, IME1, can bypass the requirement for Kar4p in meiotic entry but the additional overexpression of the translational regulator, RIM4, is required to permit sporulation in kar4Δ/Δ. Using microarray analysis and RNA sequencing, we sought to determine the impact of removing Kar4p and consequently mRNA methylation on the early meiotic transcriptome in a strain background (S288c) that is sensitive to the loss of early meiotic regulators. We found that kar4Δ/Δ mutants have a largely wild type transcriptional profile with the exception of two groups of genes that show delayed and reduced expression: (1) a set of Ime1p-dependent early genes as well as IME1, and (2) a set of late genes dependent on the mid-meiotic transcription factor, Ndt80p. The early gene expression defect is likely the result of the loss of mRNA methylation and is rescued by overexpressing IME1, but the late defect is only suppressed by overexpression of both IME1 and RIM4. The requirement for RIM4 led us to predict that the non-catalytic function of Kar4p, like methyltransferase complex orthologs in other systems, may function at the level of translation. Mass spectrometry analysis identified several genes involved in meiotic recombination with strongly reduced protein levels, but with little to no reduction in transcript levels in kar4Δ/Δ after IME1 overexpression. The low levels of these proteins were rescued by overexpression of RIM4 and IME1, but not by the overexpression of IME1 alone. These data expand our understanding of the role of Kar4p in regulating meiosis and provide key insights into a potential mechanism of Kar4p's later meiotic function that is independent of mRNA methylation.

Kar4 is Required for the Normal Pattern of Meiotic Gene Expression

Kar4p, the yeast homolog of the mammalian methyltransferase subunit METTL14, is required for the initiation of meiosis and has at least two distinct functions in regulating the meiotic program. Cells lacking Kar4p can be driven to sporulate by co-overexpressing the master meiotic transcription factor, IME1 , and the translational regulator, RIM4 , suggesting that Kar4p functions at both the transcriptional and translational level to regulate meiosis. Using microarray analysis and RNA sequencing, we found that kar4 Δ/Δ mutants have a largely wild type transcriptional profile with the exception of two groups of genes that show delayed and reduced expression: (1) a set of Ime1p-dependent early genes as well as IME1 , and (2) a set of late genes dependent on the mid-meiotic transcription factor, Ndt80p. The early gene expression defect is rescued by overexpressing IME1 , but the late defect is only suppressed by overexpression of both IME1 and RIM4 . Mass spectrometry analysis identified several genes involved in meiotic recombination with strongly reduced protein levels, but with little to no reduction in transcript levels in kar4 Δ/Δ after IME1 overexpression. The low levels of these proteins were rescued by overexpression of RIM4 and IME1 , but not by the overexpression of IME1 alone. These data expand our understanding of the role of Kar4p in regulating meiosis and provide key insights into a potential mechanism of Kar4p's later meiotic function that is independent of mRNA methylation.

Author Summary

Kar4p is required at two stages during meiosis. Cells lacking Kar4p have a severe loss of mRNA methylation and arrest early in the meiotic program, failing to undergo either pre-meiotic DNA synthesis or meiotic recombination. The early block is rescued by overexpression of the meiotic transcription factor, IME1 . The kar4 Δ/Δ cells show delayed and reduced expression of a set of Ime1p-dependent genes expressed early in meiosis as well as a set of later genes that are largely Ndt80p-dependent. Overexpression of IME1 rescues the expression defect of these early genes and expedites the meiotic program in the wild type S288C strain background. However, IME1 overexpression is not sufficient to facilitate sporulation in kar4 Δ/Δ. Completion of meiosis and sporulation requires the additional overexpression of a translational regulator, RIM4 . Analysis of kar4 Δ/Δ's proteome during meiosis with IME1 overexpression revealed that proteins important for meiotic recombination have reduced levels that cannot be explained by equivalent reductions in transcript abundance. IME1 overexpression by itself rescues the defect associated with a catalytic mutant of Ime4p, implying that the early defect reflects mRNA methylation. The residual defects in protein levels likely reflect the loss of a non-catalytic function of Kar4p, and the methylation complex, which requires overexpression of RIM4 to suppress.

A widespread inversion polymorphism conserved among Saccharomyces species is caused by recurrent homogenization of a sporulation gene family

Saccharomyces genomes are highly collinear and show relatively little structural variation, both within and between species of this yeast genus. We investigated the only common inversion polymorphism known in S. cerevisiae, which affects a 24-kb 'flip/flop' region containing 15 genes near the centromere of chromosome XIV. The region exists in two orientations, called reference (REF) and inverted (INV). Meiotic recombination in this region is suppressed in crosses between REF and INV orientation strains such as the BY x RM cross. We find that the inversion polymorphism is at least 17 million years old because it is conserved across the genus Saccharomyces. However, the REF and INV isomers are not ancient alleles but are continually being re-created by re-inversion of the region within each species. Inversion occurs due to continual homogenization of two almost identical 4-kb sequences that form an inverted repeat (IR) at the ends of the flip/flop region. The IR consists of two pairs of genes that are specifically and strongly expressed during the late stages of sporulation. We show that one of these gene pairs, YNL018C/YNL034W, codes for a protein that is essential for spore formation. YNL018C and YNL034W are the founder members of a gene family, Centroid, whose members in other Saccharomycetaceae species evolve fast, duplicate frequently, and are preferentially located close to centromeres. We tested the hypothesis that Centroid genes are a meiotic drive system, but found no support for this idea.

The Role of Transposable Elements in Sexual Development

Up to 50% of most mammalian genomes are made up of transposable elements (TEs) that have the potential to mobilize around the genome. Despite this prevalence, research on TEs is only beginning to gain traction within the field of neuroscience. While TEs have long been regarded as "junk" or parasitic DNA, it has become evident that they are adaptive DNA and RNA regulatory elements. In addition to their vital role in normal development, TEs can also interact with steroid receptors, which are key elements to sexual development. In this review, we provide an overview of the involvement of TEs in processes related to sexual development- from TE activity in the germline to TE accumulation in sex chromosomes. Moreover, we highlight sex differences in TE activity and their regulation of genes related to sexual development. Finally, we speculate on the epigenetic mechanisms that may govern TEs' role in sexual development. In this context, we emphasize the need to further the understanding of sexual development through the lens of TEs including in a variety of organs at different developmental stages, their molecular networks, and evolution.

Meiosis, a New Playground for Retrotransposon Evolution

Retrotransposons provide both threats and evolutionary opportunities for their hosts. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Laureau et al. describe a fascinating host-retrotransposon relationship that may lead to retrotransposon domestication: Ty3/Gypsy exploit meiosis networks to sustain their transcription, while the host deploys RNA-binding proteins to prevent their translation.