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Phillips EO, Gunjan A. Histone Variants: The Unsung Guardians of the Genome. DNA Repair (Amst) 2022; 112:103301. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2022.103301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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2
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Wootton J, Soutoglou E. Chromatin and Nuclear Dynamics in the Maintenance of Replication Fork Integrity. Front Genet 2022; 12:773426. [PMID: 34970302 PMCID: PMC8712883 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.773426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Replication of the eukaryotic genome is a highly regulated process and stringent control is required to maintain genome integrity. In this review, we will discuss the many aspects of the chromatin and nuclear environment that play key roles in the regulation of both unperturbed and stressed replication. Firstly, the higher order organisation of the genome into A and B compartments, topologically associated domains (TADs) and sub-nuclear compartments has major implications in the control of replication timing. In addition, the local chromatin environment defined by non-canonical histone variants, histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) and enrichment of factors such as heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) plays multiple roles in normal S phase progression and during the repair of replicative damage. Lastly, we will cover how the spatial organisation of stalled replication forks facilitates the resolution of replication stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Wootton
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Evi Soutoglou
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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3
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Hsu CL, Chong SY, Lin CY, Kao CF. Histone dynamics during DNA replication stress. J Biomed Sci 2021; 28:48. [PMID: 34144707 PMCID: PMC8214274 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-021-00743-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Accurate and complete replication of the genome is essential not only for genome stability but also for cell viability. However, cells face constant threats to the replication process, such as spontaneous DNA modifications and DNA lesions from endogenous and external sources. Any obstacle that slows down replication forks or perturbs replication dynamics is generally considered to be a form of replication stress, and the past decade has seen numerous advances in our understanding of how cells respond to and resolve such challenges. Furthermore, recent studies have also uncovered links between defects in replication stress responses and genome instability or various diseases, such as cancer. Because replication stress takes place in the context of chromatin, histone dynamics play key roles in modulating fork progression and replication stress responses. Here, we summarize the current understanding of histone dynamics in replication stress, highlighting recent advances in the characterization of fork-protective mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Ling Hsu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Shin Yen Chong
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yeh Lin
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Fu Kao
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan.
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4
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Huang Y, Li GM. DNA mismatch repair in the chromatin context: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential. DNA Repair (Amst) 2021; 93:102918. [PMID: 33087261 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2020.102918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
DNA mismatch repair (MMR) maintains genomic stability primarily by correcting replication errors. Defects in MMR lead to cancers and cause resistance to many chemotherapeutic drugs. Emerging evidence reveals that MMR is coupled with replication and precisely regulated in the context of chromatin; strikingly, tumors defective in MMR are highly responsive to immune checkpoint blockade therapy. As a tribute to Dr. Samuel Wilson for his many scientific contributions to the field of DNA repair and his leadership as Editor-in-Chief of the journal DNA Repair, we summarize recent developments in research on MMR at the chromatin level, its implications for tumorigenesis, and its therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Huang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA
| | - Guo-Min Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA.
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5
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Parmar JJ, Padinhateeri R. Nucleosome positioning and chromatin organization. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2020; 64:111-118. [PMID: 32731156 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2020.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In our cells, DNA is folded and packed with the help of many proteins into chromatin whose basic unit is a nucleosome-DNA wrapped around octamer of histone proteins. The chain of nucleosomes is further folded and arranged into many layers and has a dynamic organization. How does the complex chromatin organization emerge from interactions among DNA, histones, and non-histone proteins have been a question of great interest. Here we review recent literature that investigated how nucleosome positioning and nucleosome-mediated interactions drive chromatin organization. Unlike our earlier understanding, chromatin is organized into 3D domains of various sizes having irregularly organized nucleosomes. These domains emerge due to heterogeneous nucleosome positioning and diverse inter-nucleosome interactions that vary in space and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsana J Parmar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400 076, India
| | - Ranjith Padinhateeri
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400 076, India.
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6
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Huang Y, Li GM. DNA mismatch repair in the context of chromatin. Cell Biosci 2020; 10:10. [PMID: 32025281 PMCID: PMC6996186 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-020-0379-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA mismatch repair (MMR) maintains replication fidelity by correcting mispaired nucleotides incorporated by DNA polymerases. Defects in MMR lead to cancers characterized by microsatellite instability. Recently, chromatin mechanisms that regulate MMR have been discovered, which sheds new light on MMR deficiency and its role in tumorigenesis. This review summarizes these chromatin-level mechanisms that regulate MMR and their implications for tumor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Huang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Guo-Min Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
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7
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Han JJ, Song ZT, Sun JL, Yang ZT, Xian MJ, Wang S, Sun L, Liu JX. Chromatin remodeling factor CHR18 interacts with replication protein RPA1A to regulate the DNA replication stress response in Arabidopsis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 220:476-487. [PMID: 29974976 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
DNA replication is a fundamental process for the faithful transmission of genetic information in all living organisms. Many endogenous and environmental signals impede fork progression during DNA synthesis, which induces replication errors and DNA replication stress. Chromatin remodeling factors regulate nucleosome occupancy and the histone composition of the nucleosome in chromatin; however, whether chromatin remodeling factors are involved in the DNA replication stress response in plants is unknown. We reveal that chromatin remodeling factor CHR18 plays important roles in DNA replication stress in Arabidopsis thaliana by interacting with the DNA replication protein RPA1A. According to the genetic analysis, the loss of function of either CHR18 or RPA1A confers a high sensitivity to DNA replication stress in Arabidopsis. CHR18 interacts with RPA1A in both yeast cells and tobacco epidermal cells. The coexpression of RPA1A and CHR18 enhances the accumulation of CHR18 in nuclear foci in plants. CHR18 is a typical nuclear-localized chromatin remodeling factor with ATPase activity. Our results demonstrate that during DNA synthesis in plants, RPA1A interacts with CHR18 and recruits CHR18 to nuclear foci to resolve DNA replication stress, which is important for cell propagation and root growth in Arabidopsis plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Jia Han
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Ze-Ting Song
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jing-Liang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Zheng-Ting Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
- School of Life Sciences, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Meng-Jun Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Shuo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Ling Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Jian-Xiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
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8
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Srivatsan A, Li BZ, Szakal B, Branzei D, Putnam CD, Kolodner RD. The Swr1 chromatin-remodeling complex prevents genome instability induced by replication fork progression defects. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3680. [PMID: 30206225 PMCID: PMC6134005 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06131-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Genome instability is associated with tumorigenesis. Here, we identify a role for the histone Htz1, which is deposited by the Swr1 chromatin-remodeling complex (SWR-C), in preventing genome instability in the absence of the replication fork/replication checkpoint proteins Mrc1, Csm3, or Tof1. When combined with deletion of SWR1 or HTZ1, deletion of MRC1, CSM3, or TOF1 or a replication-defective mrc1 mutation causes synergistic increases in gross chromosomal rearrangement (GCR) rates, accumulation of a broad spectrum of GCRs, and hypersensitivity to replication stress. The double mutants have severe replication defects and accumulate aberrant replication intermediates. None of the individual mutations cause large increases in GCR rates; however, defects in MRC1, CSM3 or TOF1 cause activation of the DNA damage checkpoint and replication defects. We propose a model in which Htz1 deposition and retention in chromatin prevents transiently stalled replication forks that occur in mrc1, tof1, or csm3 mutants from being converted to DNA double-strand breaks that trigger genome instability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Srivatsan
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA
| | - Bin-Zhong Li
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA
| | - Barnabas Szakal
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology Foundation, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Dana Branzei
- The FIRC Institute of Molecular Oncology Foundation, Via Adamello 16, 20139, Milan, Italy.,Istituto di Genetica Molecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IGM-CNR), Via Abbiategrasso 207, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Christopher D Putnam
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA.,Departments of Medicine, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA
| | - Richard D Kolodner
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA. .,Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA. .,Moores-UCSD Cancer Center, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA. .,Institute of Genomic Medicine, University of California School of Medicine, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0669, USA.
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9
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Rees DM, Willhoft O, Lin CL, Bythell-Douglas R, Wigley DB. Production and Assay of Recombinant Multisubunit Chromatin Remodeling Complexes. Methods Enzymol 2017; 592:27-47. [PMID: 28668124 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2017.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a novel system to facilitate the rapid and easy cloning of multiple genes (>10) in under a week. Using this system we have been able to successfully clone, overexpress, and purify a number of large multimeric proteins from insect cells, including the chromatin remodeling complexes SWR1 and INO80. Using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based assays we have demonstrated that our overexpressed enzymes have activities comparable to those purified from sources where the proteins are expressed under their endogenous promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Rees
- Section of Structural Biology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Willhoft
- Section of Structural Biology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chia-Liang Lin
- Section of Structural Biology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Dale B Wigley
- Section of Structural Biology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
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10
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Sura W, Kabza M, Karlowski WM, Bieluszewski T, Kus-Slowinska M, Pawełoszek Ł, Sadowski J, Ziolkowski PA. Dual Role of the Histone Variant H2A.Z in Transcriptional Regulation of Stress-Response Genes. THE PLANT CELL 2017; 29:791-807. [PMID: 28258158 PMCID: PMC5435421 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.16.00573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The influence of the histone variant H2A.Z on transcription remains a long-standing conundrum. Here, by analyzing the actin-related protein6 mutant, which is impaired in H2A.Z deposition, and by H2A.Z profiling in stress conditions, we investigated the impact of this histone variant on gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana We demonstrate that the arp6 mutant exhibits anomalies in response to osmotic stress. Indeed, stress-responsive genes are overrepresented among those hyperactive in arp6. In wild-type plants, these genes exhibit high levels of H2A.Z in the gene body. Furthermore, we observed that in drought-responsive genes, levels of H2A.Z in the gene body correlate with transcript levels. H2A.Z occupancy, but not distribution, changes in parallel with transcriptional changes. In particular, we observed H2A.Z loss upon transcriptional activation and H2A.Z gain upon repression. These data suggest that H2A.Z has a repressive role in transcription and counteracts unwanted expression in noninductive conditions. However, reduced activity of some genes in arp6 is associated with distinct behavior of H2A.Z at their +1 nucleosome, which exemplifies the requirement of this histone for transcription. Our data support a model where H2A.Z in gene bodies has a strong repressive effect on transcription, whereas in +1 nucleosomes, it is important for maintaining the activity of some genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Sura
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Michał Kabza
- Department of Bioinformatics, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Wojciech M Karlowski
- Department of Computational Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bieluszewski
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marta Kus-Slowinska
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Łukasz Pawełoszek
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Jan Sadowski
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Piotr A Ziolkowski
- Department of Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
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11
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Regulation of mismatch repair by histone code and posttranslational modifications in eukaryotic cells. DNA Repair (Amst) 2015; 38:68-74. [PMID: 26719139 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2015.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
DNA mismatch repair (MMR) protects genome integrity by correcting DNA replication-associated mispairs, modulating DNA damage-induced cell cycle checkpoints and regulating homeologous recombination. Loss of MMR function leads to cancer development. This review describes progress in understanding how MMR is carried out in the context of chromatin and how chromatin organization/compaction, epigenetic mechanisms and posttranslational modifications of MMR proteins influence and regulate MMR in eukaryotic cells.
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12
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Choy JS, Qadri B, Henry L, Shroff K, Bifarin O, Basrai MA. A Genome-Wide Screen with Nicotinamide to Identify Sirtuin-Dependent Pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2015; 6:485-94. [PMID: 26646153 PMCID: PMC4751566 DOI: 10.1534/g3.115.022244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Sirtuins are evolutionarily conserved NAD-dependent deacetylases that catalyze the cleavage of NAD(+) into nicotinamide (NAM), which can act as a pan-sirtuin inhibitor in unicellular and multicellular organisms. Sirtuins regulate processes such as transcription, DNA damage repair, chromosome segregation, and longevity extension in yeast and metazoans. The founding member of the evolutionarily conserved sirtuin family, SIR2, was first identified in budding yeast. Subsequent studies led to the identification of four yeast SIR2 homologs HST1, HST2, HST3, and HST4. Understanding the downstream physiological consequences of inhibiting sirtuins can be challenging since most studies focus on single or double deletions of sirtuins, and mating defects in SIR2 deletions hamper genome-wide screens. This represents an important gap in our knowledge of how sirtuins function in highly complex biological processes such as aging, metabolism, and chromosome segregation. In this report, we used a genome-wide screen to explore sirtuin-dependent processes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by identifying deletion mutants that are sensitive to NAM. We identified 55 genes in total, 36 of which have not been previously reported to be dependent on sirtuins. We find that genome stability pathways are particularly vulnerable to loss of sirtuin activity. Here, we provide evidence that defects in sister chromatid cohesion renders cells sensitive to growth in the presence of NAM. The results of our screen provide a broad view of the biological pathways sensitive to inhibition of sirtuins, and advance our understanding of the function of sirtuins and NAD(+) biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- John S Choy
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064
| | - Bayan Qadri
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064
| | - Leah Henry
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064
| | - Kunal Shroff
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064
| | - Olatomiwa Bifarin
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064
| | - Munira A Basrai
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Donà M, Mittelsten Scheid O. DNA Damage Repair in the Context of Plant Chromatin. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 168:1206-18. [PMID: 26089404 PMCID: PMC4528755 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.00538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The integrity of DNA molecules is constantly challenged. All organisms have developed mechanisms to detect and repair multiple types of DNA lesions. The basic principles of DNA damage repair (DDR) in prokaryotes and unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes are similar, but the association of DNA with nucleosomes in eukaryotic chromatin requires mechanisms that allow access of repair enzymes to the lesions. This is achieved by chromatin-remodeling factors, and their necessity for efficient DDR has recently been demonstrated for several organisms and repair pathways. Plants share many features of chromatin organization and DNA repair with fungi and animals, but they differ in other, important details, which are both interesting and relevant for our understanding of genome stability and genetic diversity. In this Update, we compare the knowledge of the role of chromatin and chromatin-modifying factors during DDR in plants with equivalent systems in yeast and humans. We emphasize plant-specific elements and discuss possible implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Donà
- Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Biocenter, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ortrun Mittelsten Scheid
- Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Biocenter, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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