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Anderson RE, Johnson N, Jones SCT, Patterson A, Anyiwo N. Racial Socialization and Black Adolescent Mental Health and Developmental Outcomes: A Critical Review and Future Directions. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIETY OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, DIVISION 53 2024:1-24. [PMID: 39137924 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2024.2384025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Black American adolescents are beleaguered with the most frequent and severe experiences of racial discrimination (RD) among their peers. To protect Black adolescents' mental health and developmental outcomes from the pernicious impact of discrimination, parents and other proximal adults and peers often utilize racial socialization (RS), or communications and behaviors emphasizing the importance of race and the harms of racism. While several recent RS reviews have been conducted across ethnicity, a modern review investigating RS practices related to and predictive of Black adolescent psychosocial outcomes is needed. METHOD To ground our critical systematic review of 45 articles, we first highlighted the ways RD impacts the lives of Black adolescents. Then, drawing from integrative models for Black youth development, we synthesized recent psychological, academic, and sociocultural literatures to describe the role of RS in Black adolescents' wellness. RESULTS The impact of various tenets of RS was seen most clearly as a protective factor against RD with respect to adolescents' mental health (e.g. depression), academic achievement (e.g. GPA), and sociocultural identity (e.g. public and private racial regard) development. Cultural socialization, a strategy related to extolling pride for one's race, was the most consistent RS protective factor, with novel RS constructs (e.g. parental competency) emerging as a method to buffer youth internalizing and externalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS Recommendations are made for future research on understudied components of RS and multiple methods and reporters to capture a more holistic depiction of RS practices. We emphasize preventative and intervening approaches to reduce the impetus for RS and its impact, including burgeoning clinical and community-level programs and the importance for provider training to yield positive mental health outcomes for Black adolescents.
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Nieri T, Montoya L, Carlos C. Ethnic-Racial Socialization of White Children by White Parents: A Systematic Review. JOURNAL OF FAMILY ISSUES 2024; 45:1735-1763. [PMID: 38831879 PMCID: PMC11144114 DOI: 10.1177/0192513x231194306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
This systematic review of the literature examined the extent and nature of white parent's ethic-racial socialization (ERS) of white children, the factors associated with white parents' ERS, and the child outcomes of white parents' ERS. It followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The review included 43 English-language works published between January 2000 and June 2021 and referenced in PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, or Sociological Abstracts. It showed that white parents are engaged in ERS, employing many of the same strategies identified in research with parents of color as well as strategies identified as specific to white families. The review revealed child and parent factors related to ERS and child outcomes of ERS, including racial attitudes. In contrast with parents of color's ERS, white parents' ERS tends to teach strategies of advantage, preparing children to maintain their privilege. We offer recommendations for practice and future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya Nieri
- Sociology Department, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | | | - Clarissa Carlos
- Sociology Department, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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Green MN, Bryant S. The Multiracial-Black Socialization Model: Conceptualizing racial socialization in Multiracial-Black families. FAMILY PROCESS 2023; 62:1075-1092. [PMID: 37257845 DOI: 10.1111/famp.12899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Scholars have spent the last four decades expanding the theoretical understanding of parental racial socialization-or parent-child communication about race. What is largely absent from existing conceptualizations, however, is a consideration for how the practice manifests in Multiracial families. The interracial structure of Multiracial families complicates racial socialization in ways that are not being captured in empirical research due to the overreliance on universal frameworks. It is imperative that we close this theoretical gap as the proportion of Multiracial families in the United States is expanding at record rates. Accordingly, we present the Multiracial-Black Socialization Model (MRB-SM) in this paper. The MRB-SM is designed explicitly for Multiracial-Black families, one of the fastest-growing sub-groups of Multiracial families. The model builds upon the strengths of universal socialization theories by outlining the content, process, and context components of racial socialization in Multiracial-Black families. The implications for research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- McKenzie N Green
- School of Social Work, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Summer Bryant
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
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Frey WR, Ward LM, Weiss A, Cogburn CD. Digital White Racial Socialization: Social Media and the Case of Whiteness. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2022; 32:919-937. [PMID: 35665564 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The Internet has become a ubiquitous central element in the lives of adolescents. In this conceptual paper, we focus on digital white racial socialization (D-WRS), arguing: (1) for an expanded conceptualization of WRS as doings, and (2) that social media may be changing processes of WRS through an extension of traditional settings and through the creation of unique social contexts. We highlight the uniqueness of social media contexts due to the designed normalization of whiteness, weak-tie racism, social media affordances, and racialized pedagogical zones allowing adolescents to practice doing race. We introduce a conceptual framework for D-WRS and end with an expressed need for conceptually guided research on the multidimensional relationship between social media and WRS processes.
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Concordant and Discordant Patterns of Parental Racial Socialization among Biracial Black-White Adolescents: Correlates and Consequences. J Youth Adolesc 2022; 51:2340-2354. [PMID: 35976560 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-022-01667-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Multiracial-Black youth are one of the fastest-growing populations in the U.S., but little is known about their racialized developmental experiences. This study uses Latent Profile Analysis to identify patterns of parental racial socialization among Biracial Black-White adolescents and explore whether those profiles relate to demographics and racial identity outcomes. The sample consisted of 330 Biracial Black-White adolescents living in the U.S. (67% boys; Mage = 14.8, SD = 1.5). The analysis yielded a four-profile solution based on (1) the frequency of socialization messages youth received and (2) the concordance of those messages across both of their parents (i.e., whether socialization frequency is similar or different between Black and white parents). Profile membership differed based on youth gender and racialized appearance (i.e., whether youth presented physically as Black, white, or racially ambiguous). Ultimately, adolescents in the profile with the highest frequency and concordance of parental racial socialization reported more adaptive racial identity attitudes including a sense of pride in being Black and Biracial. Youth in that profile also felt the most comfortable navigating the intersections of their racial identities, which coupled with racial pride has promising implications for their development and wellbeing.
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McClain AK, Mares ML. MEDIA MESSAGES: INTERSECTIONS OF ETHNIC-RACIAL AND MEDIA SOCIALIZATION IN AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILIES. RESEARCH IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15427609.2021.2010491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Kuang L, Nishikawa S. Ethnic Socialization, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem in Chinese Mulao Adolescents. Front Psychol 2021; 12:730478. [PMID: 34744899 PMCID: PMC8569933 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.730478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the associations and likely pathways between ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem among junior high school students of Chinese Mulao ethnic minority. A total of 469 Mulao students (220 boys and 249 girls) completed the Ethnic Socialization Measurement revised by Yin et al. (2016), the Revised Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM-R) by Roberts et al. (1999), and Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale (Chinese Version) by Wang et al. (1999). The main results indicated that adolescents who perceived more promotion of harmony messages tended to report stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem. Adolescents who perceived cultural socialization displayed stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem, while the promotion of distrust messages was negatively associated with self-esteem. Multiple-group analysis revealed that the relationships were stable across gender, parental education, but varied significantly across students’ grade. These findings emphasize the important role of positive ethnic socialization messages in adolescents’ ethnic identity and self-esteem. In addition, it is also important that we pay attention to negative ethnic socialization messages and consider their grade when communicating ethnic information with adolescents. Finally, our results are analyzed and notable suggestions are presented for ethnic family education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Kuang
- Psychological Health Center, Guilin University of Electronic and Technology, Guilin, China
| | - Saori Nishikawa
- Graduate School of Social and Cultural Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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Stokes MN, Hope EC, Cryer-Coupet QR, Elliot E. Black Girl Blues: The Roles of Racial Socialization, Gendered Racial Socialization, and Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms among Black Girls. J Youth Adolesc 2020; 49:2175-2189. [PMID: 32955702 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-020-01317-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Racial socialization is an important predictor of wellbeing among Black youth. Scholars have theorized that Black girls could benefit from gendered racial socialization or messages about being Black girls. However, this has not been examined empirically. The current study investigates the role of general and gendered racial socialization and racial identity attitudes on depressive symptoms among 287 Black girls between the ages of 13-17 (Mage = 15.4) in the U.S. Path analysis results demonstrated that general and gendered racial socialization about pride were directly associated with positive feelings about being Black which were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Oppressive messages about Black women were related to negative feelings about being Black and more depressive symptoms. The implications of general and gendered racial socialization on the psychological wellbeing of Black girls are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elan C Hope
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Associations Between Maternal Experiences of Discrimination and Biomarkers of Toxic Stress in School-Aged Children. Matern Child Health J 2020; 23:1147-1151. [PMID: 31222595 DOI: 10.1007/s10995-019-02779-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine associations between maternal experiences of discrimination and child biomarkers of toxic stress in a multiethnic, urban sample of mothers and children (4-9 years). METHODS Data were drawn from a cross-sectional study of maternal-child dyads (N = 54) living in low-income neighborhoods in New Haven, Connecticut, USA. Mothers reported experiences of discrimination. Noninvasive biomarkers of toxic stress were collected to assess neuroendocrine (hair cortisol), immune (salivary cytokines, c-reactive protein), and cardiovascular (blood pressure) functioning in children. RESULTS Maternal experiences of discrimination were associated with increased log-transformed salivary interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in children (β = 0.15, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS Vicarious racism, or indirect exposure to discrimination experienced by caregivers, is associated with poor health outcomes for children. Immune pathways may be a biological mechanism through which racial discrimination "gets under the skin," but additional research is needed to fully understand these relationships. Uncovering the physiological mechanisms linking vicarious racism with child health is an important step towards understanding possible early roots of racial and ethnic health inequities.
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Atkin AL, Yoo HC. Familial racial-ethnic socialization of Multiracial American Youth: A systematic review of the literature with MultiCrit. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2019.100869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Wang MT, Smith LV, Miller-Cotto D, Huguley JP. Parental Ethnic-Racial Socialization and Children of Color's Academic Success: A Meta-Analytic Review. Child Dev 2019; 91:e528-e544. [PMID: 31099030 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Increased attention is being placed on the importance of ethnic-racial socialization in children of color's academic outcomes. Synthesizing research on the effects of parental ethnic-racial socialization, this meta-analysis of 37 studies reveals that overall the relation between ethnic-racial socialization and academic outcomes was positive, though the strength varied by the specific academic outcome under consideration, dimension of ethnic-racial socialization utilized, developmental age of the child receiving the socialization, and racial/ethnic group implementing the socialization. Ethnic-racial socialization was positively related to academic performance, motivation, and engagement, with motivation being the strongest outcome. Most dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization were positively related to academic outcomes, except for promotion of mistrust. In addition, the link between ethnic-racial socialization and academic outcomes was strongest for middle school and college students, and when looking across ethnic-racial groups, this link was strongest for African American youth. The results suggest that different dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization have distinct relationships with diverse academic outcomes and that the effects of ethnic-racial socialization vary by both youth developmental levels and racial/ethnic groups.
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Condon EM, Sadler LS, Mayes LC. Toxic stress and protective factors in multi-ethnic school age children: A research protocol. Res Nurs Health 2018; 41:97-106. [PMID: 29441597 PMCID: PMC5989308 DOI: 10.1002/nur.21851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to stressful environments in early childhood can cause a toxic stress response and lead to poor health outcomes, including obesity, cardiac disease, diabetes, and mental illness. In animals and maltreated children, the presence of a nurturing caregiver can buffer against the physiological disruptions associated with a toxic stress response; however, the specific caregiver and parenting characteristics that best promote a protective relationship in humans remain largely unexplored, particularly in families living in high-risk environments. In this study, framed in an ecobiodevelopmental (EBD) model, a cross-sectional design is being used to study 54 multi-ethnic, urban maternal-child dyads with children at early school age (4-9 years). Mothers' past experiences, mental health, and caregiving patterns and children's hair cortisol, C-reactive protein, pro-inflammatory cytokines, blood pressure, BMI, behavior, and school performance are being analyzed to identify maternal characteristics that may protect against children's toxic stress response in families at high risk for exposure to stressors such as poverty, trauma, or exposure to violence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lois S. Sadler
- Yale School of Nursing, Orange, Connecticut
- Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut
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