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Di Salvo A, Chiaradia E, Sforna M, Della Rocca G. Endocannabinoid system and phytocannabinoids in the main species of veterinary interest: a comparative review. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:2915-2941. [PMID: 39162768 PMCID: PMC11442603 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-024-10509-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
Since the discovery of the endocannabinoid system and due to the empirical evidence of the therapeutic effects on several illnesses both in humans and animals that follow the administration of exogenous cannabinoids (i.e., phytocannabinoids), numerous studies have been conducted. These investigations aimed to identify the expression and distribution of cannabinoid receptors in healthy and pathologic organs and tissues of different animal species and to define the interactions of phytocannabinoids with these receptors. In the last decade, pharmacokinetics, efficacy and tolerability of many Cannabis derivatives formulations, mainly containing cannabidiol, in the main species of veterinary interest, have been also investigated. This manuscript summarizes the findings reported by the scientific studies published so far on the molecular mode of action of the main phytocannabinoids, the localization of cannabinoid receptors in organs and tissues, as well as the pharmacokinetics, efficacy and tolerability of Cannabis derivatives in dogs, cats, horses and other species of veterinary interest. A deep knowledge of these issues is crucial for the use of phytocannabinoids for therapeutic purposes in animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Di Salvo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
- Research Center on Animal Pain (CeRiDA), University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Monica Sforna
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Giorgia Della Rocca
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
- Research Center on Animal Pain (CeRiDA), University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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Rozanc J, Klumpers LE, Huestis MA, Tagen M. Tolerability of High-Dose Oral Δ 9-THC: Implications for Human Laboratory Study Design. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:437-448. [PMID: 38377580 DOI: 10.1089/can.2023.0209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary intoxicating compound in cannabis, has been tested extensively in controlled administration human studies. Some studies require a high THC dose that may induce adverse events (AEs), such as those testing novel treatments for cannabinoid overdose. Although there are ethical concerns related to administering high THC doses, there is no systematic analysis on studies utilizing these doses. In this review, we examine studies that administered oral THC doses ≥30 mg ("high-dose THC"), focusing on reported tolerability, subjective effects, and pharmacokinetics (PK), with the objective to inform the design of future studies. Methods: A comprehensive PubMed search was performed to identify studies meeting pre-specified criteria. Results: Our search identified 27 publications from 17 high-dose oral THC laboratory studies, with single doses up to 90 mg and multiple doses up to 210 mg per day. The maximum plasma THC concentration (Cmax) appeared to increase in a dose-proportional manner over this dose range. All high-dose THC studies enrolled participants with previous cannabis experience, although current use ranged from nonusers to regular cannabis users. High-dose THC was generally well tolerated with transient mild to moderate AE, including nausea and vomiting, anxiety, paranoia, and sedation. There were occasional participant withdrawals due to AEs, but there were no serious AE. Participants with frequent cannabis use tolerated high-dose THC best. Conclusion: Although based on limited data, THC was generally adequately tolerated with single oral doses of at least 50 mg in a controlled laboratory setting in healthy participants with past cannabis experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Rozanc
- Verdient Science LLC, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Linda E Klumpers
- Verdient Science LLC, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Czigle S, Nagy M, Mladěnka P, Tóth J. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic herb-drug interactions-part I. Herbal medicines of the central nervous system. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16149. [PMID: 38025741 PMCID: PMC10656908 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Unlike conventional drug substances, herbal medicines are composed of a complex of biologically active compounds. Therefore, the potential occurrence of herb-drug interactions is even more probable than for drug-drug interactions. Interactions can occur on both the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic level. Herbal medicines may affect the resulting efficacy of the concomitantly used (synthetic) drugs, mainly on the pharmacokinetic level, by changing their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Studies on the pharmacodynamic interactions of herbal medicines and conventional drugs are still very limited. This interaction level is related to the mechanism of action of different plant constituents. Herb-drug interactions can cause changes in drug levels and activities and lead to therapeutic failure and/or side effects (sometimes toxicities, even fatal). This review aims to provide a summary of recent information on the potential drug interactions involving commonly used herbal medicines that affect the central nervous system (Camellia, Valeriana, Ginkgo, Hypericum, Humulus, Cannabis) and conventional drugs. The survey databases were used to identify primary scientific publications, case reports, and secondary databases on interactions were used later on as well. Search keywords were based on plant names (botanical genera), officinal herbal drugs, herbal drug preparations, herbal drug extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szilvia Czigle
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Milan Nagy
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Přemysl Mladěnka
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Tóth
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - the OEMONOM.
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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Hernandez CM, Orsini CA, Blaes SL, Bizon JL, Febo M, Bruijnzeel AW, Setlow B. Effects of repeated adolescent exposure to cannabis smoke on cognitive outcomes in adulthood. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:848-863. [PMID: 33295231 PMCID: PMC8187454 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120965931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis (marijuana) is the most widely used illicit drug in the USA, and consumption among adolescents is rising. Some animal studies show that adolescent exposure to delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol or synthetic cannabinoid receptor 1 agonists causes alterations in affect and cognition that can persist into adulthood. It is less clear, however, whether similar alterations result from exposure to cannabis via smoke inhalation, which remains the most frequent route of administration in humans. AIMS To begin to address these questions, a rat model was used to determine how cannabis smoke exposure during adolescence affects behavioral and cognitive outcomes in adulthood. METHODS Adolescent male Long-Evans rats were assigned to clean air, placebo smoke, or cannabis smoke groups. Clean air or smoke exposure sessions were conducted daily during adolescence (from P29-P49 days of age ) for a total of 21 days, and behavioral testing began on P70. RESULTS Compared to clean air and placebo smoke conditions, cannabis smoke significantly attenuated the normal developmental increase in body weight, but had no effects on several measures of either affect/motivation (open field activity, elevated plus maze, instrumental responding under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement) or cognition (set shifting, reversal learning, intertemporal choice). Surprisingly, however, in comparison to clean air controls rats exposed to either cannabis or placebo smoke in adolescence exhibited enhanced performance on a delayed response working memory task. CONCLUSIONS These findings are consistent with a growing body of evidence for limited long-term adverse cognitive and affective consequences of adolescent exposure to relatively low levels of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caesar M Hernandez
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Cellular, Development, and Integrative Biology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Caitlin A Orsini
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA
| | - Shelby L Blaes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Jennifer L Bizon
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Marcelo Febo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Adriaan W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
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Paudel P, Ross S, Li XC. Molecular Targets of Cannabinoids Associated with Depression. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:1827-1850. [PMID: 34165403 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210623144658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Novel therapeutic strategies are needed to address depression, a major neurological disorder affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives have demonstrated numerous neurological activities and may potentially be developed into new treatments for depression. This review highlights cannabinoid (CB) receptors, monoamine oxidase (MAO), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor, and cholecystokinin (CCK) receptor as key molecular targets of cannabinoids that are associated with depression. The anti-depressant activity of cannabinoids and their binding modes with cannabinoid receptors are discussed, providing insights into rational design and discovery of new cannabinoids or cannabimimetic agents with improved druggable properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradeep Paudel
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Samir Ross
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Xing-Cong Li
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
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Wright SL. Limited Utility for Benzodiazepines in Chronic Pain Management: A Narrative Review. Adv Ther 2020; 37:2604-2619. [PMID: 32378069 PMCID: PMC7467435 DOI: 10.1007/s12325-020-01354-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Controversy and uncertainty exist about the use of benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BZRAs) in pain management. This article curates available research to determine the appropriate role of BZRAs in the course of pain management, and how prescribers might address these challenges. METHODS A narrative review was performed to determine the appropriate role of BZRAs in pain management and to develop practice recommendations. Publications were identified by a search of PubMed, references of retrieved reports, guidelines, and the author's personal files. RESULTS BZRAs were found to have analgesic benefit for two pain conditions: burning mouth syndrome and stiff person syndrome. Absence of research, heterogeneity of trials, and small sample sizes precluded drawing conclusions about efficacy of BZRAs for the other 109 pain conditions explored. Data supports the use of BZRAs to treat co-occurring insomnia and anxiety disorders but only when alternatives are inadequate and only for short periods of time (2-4 weeks). The utility of BZRAs is limited by loss of efficacy that may be seen with continued use and adverse reactions including physiologic dependence which develops in 20-100% of those who take these agents for more than a month. CONCLUSIONS BZRAs are often used inappropriately in pain management. Their initiation and duration of use should be limited to a narrow range of conditions. When prescribed for 4 weeks or more, patients should be encouraged to discontinue them through a supported, slow tapering process that may take 12-18 months or longer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Wright
- Alliance for Benzodiazepine Best Practices, Littleton, CO, USA.
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Cifelli P, Ruffolo G, De Felice E, Alfano V, van Vliet EA, Aronica E, Palma E. Phytocannabinoids in Neurological Diseases: Could They Restore a Physiological GABAergic Transmission? Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E723. [PMID: 31979108 PMCID: PMC7038116 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) are the main inhibitory mediators in the central nervous system (CNS). GABAARs are pentameric ligand gated ion channels, and the main subunit composition is usually 2α2βγ, with various isotypes assembled within a set of 19 different subunits. The inhibitory function is mediated by chloride ion movement across the GABAARs, activated by synaptic GABA release, reducing neuronal excitability in the adult CNS. Several studies highlighted the importance of GABA-mediated transmission during neuro-development, and its involvement in different neurological and neurodevelopmental diseases, from anxiety to epilepsy. However, while it is well known how different classes of drugs are able to modulate the GABAARs function (benzodiazepines, barbiturates, neurosteroids, alcohol), up to now little is known about GABAARs and cannabinoids interaction in the CNS. Endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids are lately emerging as a new class of promising drugs for a wide range of neurological conditions, but their safety as medication, and their mechanisms of action are still to be fully elucidated. In this review, we will focus our attention on two of the most promising molecules (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; Δ9-THC and cannabidiol; CBD) of this new class of drugs and their possible mechanism of action on GABAARs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gabriele Ruffolo
- IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, 00163 Rome, Italy; (G.R.); (E.D.F.)
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia, University of Rome Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | | | - Veronica Alfano
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia, University of Rome Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Erwin Alexander van Vliet
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of (Neuro) Pathology, 1105 Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (E.A.v.V.); (E.A.)
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, 1090 Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eleonora Aronica
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of (Neuro) Pathology, 1105 Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (E.A.v.V.); (E.A.)
- Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland (SEIN), 0397 Heemstede, The Netherlands
| | - Eleonora Palma
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia, University of Rome Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy;
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Chow RM, Marascalchi B, Abrams WB, Peiris NA, Odonkor CA, Cohen SP. Driving Under the Influence of Cannabis: A Framework for Future Policy. Anesth Analg 2019; 128:1300-1308. [PMID: 31094805 DOI: 10.1213/ane.0000000000003575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana is the most widely consumed illicit substance in the United States, and an increasing number of states have legalized it for both medicinal and recreational purposes. As it becomes more readily available, there will be a concurrent rise in the number of users and, consequently, the number of motor vehicle operators driving under the influence. This article examines the cognitive and psychomotor effects of cannabis, as well as current policy concerning driving under the influence of drugs. The authors performed a MEDLINE search on the epidemiology of cannabis use, its cognitive and psychomotor effects, and policies regarding driving under the influence of drugs. Twenty-eight epidemiological studies, 16 acute cognitive and psychomotor studies, 8 chronic cognitive and psychomotor studies, and pertinent state and federal laws and policies were reviewed. These search results revealed that marijuana use is associated with significant cognitive and psychomotor effects. In addition, the legalization of marijuana varies from state to state, as do the laws pertaining to driving under the influence of drugs. Marijuana is a commonly found illicit substance in motor vehicle operators driving under the influence of drugs. Current evidence shows that blood levels of tetrahydrocannabinol do not correlate well with the level of impairment. In addition, although acute infrequent use of cannabis typically leads to cognitive and psychomotor impairment, this is not consistently the case for chronic heavy use. To establish the framework for driving under the influence of cannabis policy, we must review the current published evidence and examine existing policy at state and federal levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Chow
- From the Department of Anesthesiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Winfred B Abrams
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Nathalie A Peiris
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Charles A Odonkor
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Steven P Cohen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Neurology and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Anesthesiology and Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
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Bolin BL, Alcorn JL, Reynolds AR, Lile JA, Stoops WW, Rush CR. Human Drug Discrimination: Elucidating the Neuropharmacology of Commonly Abused Illicit Drugs. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2019; 39:261-295. [PMID: 27272070 PMCID: PMC5461212 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Drug-discrimination procedures empirically evaluate the control that internal drug states have over behavior. They provide a highly selective method to investigate the neuropharmacological underpinnings of the interoceptive effects of drugs in vivo. As a result, drug discrimination has been one of the most widely used assays in the field of behavioral pharmacology. Drug-discrimination procedures have been adapted for use with humans and are conceptually similar to preclinical drug-discrimination techniques in that a behavior is differentially reinforced contingent on the presence or absence of a specific interoceptive drug stimulus. This chapter provides a basic overview of human drug-discrimination procedures and reviews the extant literature concerning the use of these procedures to elucidate the underlying neuropharmacological mechanisms of commonly abused illicit drugs (i.e., stimulants, opioids, and cannabis) in humans. This chapter is not intended to review every available study that used drug-discrimination procedures in humans. Instead, when possible, exemplary studies that used a stimulant, opioid, or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis) to assess the discriminative-stimulus effects of drugs in humans are reviewed for illustrative purposes. We conclude by commenting on the current state and future of human drug-discrimination research.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Levi Bolin
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA
| | - Joseph L Alcorn
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA
| | - Anna R Reynolds
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA
| | - Joshua A Lile
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 110 Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY, 40506-0044, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 3470 Blazer Parkway, Lexington, KY, 40509, USA
| | - William W Stoops
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 110 Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY, 40506-0044, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 3470 Blazer Parkway, Lexington, KY, 40509, USA
| | - Craig R Rush
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 140 Medical Behavioral Science Building, Lexington, KY, 40536-0086, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 110 Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY, 40506-0044, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 3470 Blazer Parkway, Lexington, KY, 40509, USA.
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Boggs DL, Cortes-Briones JA, Surti T, Luddy C, Ranganathan M, Cahill JD, Sewell AR, D'Souza DC, Skosnik PD. The dose-dependent psychomotor effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9-THC) in humans. J Psychopharmacol 2018; 32:1308-1318. [PMID: 30255720 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118799953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Binding studies have demonstrated that levels of the cannabinoid receptor type-1 are highest in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, two areas critical for motor control. However, no studies have systematically examined the dose-related effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary cannabinoid receptor type-1 partial agonist in cannabis, on broad domains of psychomotor function in humans. AIMS Therefore, three domains of psychomotor function were assessed in former cannabis users (cannabis abstinent for a minimum of three months; n=23) in a three test-day, within-subject, double-blind, randomized, cross-over, and counterbalanced study during which they received intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (placebo, 0.015 mg/kg, and 0.03 mg/kg). METHODS Gross motor function was assessed via the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Motor Screening Task, fine motor control via the Lafayette Instrument Grooved Pegboard task, and motor timing via a Paced Finger-Tapping Task. In addition, the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery Rapid Visual Processing Task was utilized to determine whether delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced motor deficits were confounded by disruptions in sustained attention. RESULTS/OUTCOMES Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol resulted in robust dose-dependent deficits in fine motor control (Grooved Pegboard Task) and motor timing (Paced Finger-Tapping Task), while gross motor performance (Motor Screening Task) and sustained attention (Rapid Visual Processing Task) were unimpaired. Interestingly, despite the observed dose-dependent increases in motor impairment and blood levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, subjects reported similar levels of intoxication in the two drug conditions. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION These data suggest that while several domains of motor function are disrupted by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, subjective feelings of intoxication are dissociable from cannabinoid-induced psychomotor effects. Results are discussed in terms of the potential neural mechanisms of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in motor structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L Boggs
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jose A Cortes-Briones
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Toral Surti
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christina Luddy
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mohini Ranganathan
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - John D Cahill
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Andrew R Sewell
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Deepak C D'Souza
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Patrick D Skosnik
- 1 Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, West Haven, CT, USA.,2 Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA
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11
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Owens RA, Mustafa MA, Ignatowska-Jankowska BM, Damaj MI, Beardsley PM, Wiley JL, Niphakis MJ, Cravatt BF, Lichtman AH. Inhibition of the endocannabinoid-regulating enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase elicits a CB 1 receptor-mediated discriminative stimulus in mice. Neuropharmacology 2017; 125:80-86. [PMID: 28673548 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 06/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Substantial challenges exist for investigating the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1)-mediated discriminative stimulus effects of the endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide; AEA), compared with exogenous CB1 receptor agonists, such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the synthetic cannabinoid CP55,940. Specifically, each endocannabinoid is rapidly degraded by the respective hydrolytic enzymes, monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Whereas MAGL inhibitors partially substitute for THC and fully substitute for CP55,940, FAAH inhibitors do not substitute for either drug. Interestingly, combined FAAH-MAGL inhibition results in full THC substitution, and the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor SA-57 serves as its own discriminative training stimulus. Because MAGL inhibitors fully substitute for SA-57, we tested whether the selective MAGL inhibitor MJN110 would serve as a training stimulus. Twelve of 13 C57BL/6J mice learned to discriminate MJN110 from vehicle, and the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant dose-dependently blocked its discriminative stimulus. CP55,940, SA-57, and another MAGL inhibitor JZL184, fully substituted for MJN110. In contrast, the FAAH inhibitor PF-3845 failed to substitute for the MJN110 discriminative stimulus, but produced a 1.6 (1.1-2.2; 95% confidence interval) leftward shift in the MJN110 dose-response curve. Inhibitors of other relevant enzymes (i.e., ABHD6, COX-2) and nicotine did not engender substitution. Diazepam partially substituted for MJN110, but rimonabant failed to block this partial effect. These findings suggest that MAGL normally throttles 2-AG stimulation of CB1 receptors to a magnitude insufficient to produce cannabimimetic subjective effects. Accordingly, inhibitors of this enzyme may release this endogenous brake producing effects akin to those produced by exogenously administered cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Owens
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Mohammed A Mustafa
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Bogna M Ignatowska-Jankowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - M Imad Damaj
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Patrick M Beardsley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA
| | - Micah J Niphakis
- The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Benjamin F Cravatt
- The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Aron H Lichtman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
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12
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Fogel JS, Kelly TH, Westgate PM, Lile JA. Sex differences in the subjective effects of oral Δ 9-THC in cannabis users. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 152:44-51. [PMID: 26780348 PMCID: PMC4947027 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that there are sex differences in endocannabinoid function and the response to exogenous cannabinoids, though data from clinical studies comparing acute cannabinoid effects in men and women under controlled laboratory conditions are limited. To further explore these potential differences, data from 30 cannabis users (N=18 M, 12 F) who completed previous Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) discrimination studies were combined for this retrospective analysis. In each study, subjects learned to discriminate between oral Δ9-THC and placebo and then received a range of Δ9-THC doses (0, 5, 15 and a "high" dose of either 25 or 30mg). Responses on a drug-discrimination task, subjective effects questionnaire, psychomotor performance tasks, and physiological measures were assessed. Δ9-THC dose-dependently increased drug-appropriate responding, ratings on "positive" Visual Analog Scale (VAS) items (e.g., good effects, like drug, take again), and items related to intoxication (e.g., high, stoned). Δ9-THC also dose-dependently impaired performance on psychomotor tasks and elevated heart rate. Sex differences on VAS items emerged as a function of dose. Women exhibited significantly greater subjective responses to oral drug administration than men at the 5mg Δ9-THC dose, whereas men were more sensitive to the subjective effects of the 15mg dose of Δ9-THC than women. These results demonstrate dose-dependent separation in the subjective response to oral Δ9-THC administration by sex, which might contribute to the differential development of problematic cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica S Fogel
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 106-B Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, United States
| | - Thomas H Kelly
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, College of Medicine Office Building, Lexington, KY 40536-0086, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 106-B Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 3470 Blazer Pkwy, Lexington, KY 40509-1810, United States
| | - Philip M Westgate
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Kentucky College of Public Health, 111 Washington Ave, Lexington, KY 40536, United States
| | - Joshua A Lile
- Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, College of Medicine Office Building, Lexington, KY 40536-0086, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky College of Arts and Sciences, 106-B Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 3470 Blazer Pkwy, Lexington, KY 40509-1810, United States.
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13
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Separate and combined effects of gabapentin and [INCREMENT]9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans discriminating [INCREMENT]9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Behav Pharmacol 2016; 27:215-24. [PMID: 26313650 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine a potential mechanism of action of gabapentin to manage cannabis-use disorders by determining the interoceptive effects of gabapentin in cannabis users discriminating [INCREMENT]-tetrahydrocannabinol ([INCREMENT]-THC) using a pharmacologically selective drug-discrimination procedure. Eight cannabis users learned to discriminate 30 mg oral [INCREMENT]-THC from placebo and then received gabapentin (600 and 1200 mg), [INCREMENT]-THC (5, 15, and 30 mg), and placebo alone and in combination. Self-report, task performance, and physiological measures were also collected. [INCREMENT]-THC served as a discriminative stimulus, produced positive subjective effects, elevated heart rate, and impaired psychomotor performance. Both doses of gabapentin substituted for the [INCREMENT]-THC discriminative stimulus and engendered subjective and performance-impairing effects that overlapped with those of [INCREMENT]-THC when administered alone. When administered concurrently, gabapentin shifted the discriminative-stimulus effects of [INCREMENT]-THC leftward/upward, and combinations of [INCREMENT]-THC and gabapentin generally produced larger effects on cannabinoid-sensitive outcomes relative to [INCREMENT]-THC alone. These results suggest that one mechanism by which gabapentin might facilitate cannabis abstinence is by producing effects that overlap with those of cannabinoids.
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14
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Kleczkowska P, Smaga I, Filip M, Bujalska-Zadrozny M. Are Alcohol Anti-relapsing and Alcohol Withdrawal Drugs Useful in Cannabinoid Users? Neurotox Res 2016; 30:698-714. [PMID: 27484692 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-016-9655-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are still classified as illegal psychoactive drugs despite their broad and increasingly acknowledged therapeutic potential. These substances are most famous for their wide recreational use, particularly among young adults to either alter the state of consciousness, intensify pleasure induced by other psychoactive substances or as an alternative to the previously abused drugs. It is important to emphasize that cannabinoids are often taken together with a variety of medications intended for the treatment of alcohol use disorder (AUD) or alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS). These medications include disulfiram, acamprosate, and naltrexone. In this paper, we summarize recent advances in the knowledge of possible beneficial effects and interactions between cannabinoids and drugs commonly used for treatment of AUD and AWS either comorbid or existing as a separate disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Kleczkowska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Centre for Preclinical Research and Technology, Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha Str, 02-097, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Irena Smaga
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, Medyczna 9, 30-688, Kraków, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Filip
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Bujalska-Zadrozny
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Centre for Preclinical Research and Technology, Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha Str, 02-097, Warsaw, Poland
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15
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Intérêt potentiel du flumazénil dans les intoxications pédiatriques par cannabis : à propos d’un cas. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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16
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Broyd SJ, van Hell HH, Beale C, Yücel M, Solowij N. Acute and Chronic Effects of Cannabinoids on Human Cognition-A Systematic Review. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79:557-67. [PMID: 26858214 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 424] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis use has been associated with impaired cognition during acute intoxication as well as in the unintoxicated state in long-term users. However, the evidence has been mixed and contested, and no systematic reviews of the literature on neuropsychological task-based measures of cognition have been conducted in an attempt to synthesize the findings. We systematically review the empirical research published in the past decade (from January 2004 to February 2015) on acute and chronic effects of cannabis and cannabinoids and on persistence or recovery after abstinence. We summarize the findings into the major categories of the cognitive domains investigated, considering sample characteristics and associations with various cannabis use parameters. Verbal learning and memory and attention are most consistently impaired by acute and chronic exposure to cannabis. Psychomotor function is most affected during acute intoxication, with some evidence for persistence in chronic users and after cessation of use. Impaired verbal memory, attention, and some executive functions may persist after prolonged abstinence, but persistence or recovery across all cognitive domains remains underresearched. Associations between poorer performance and a range of cannabis use parameters, including a younger age of onset, are frequently reported. Little further evidence has emerged for the development of tolerance to the acutely impairing effects of cannabis. Evidence for potential protection from harmful effects by cannabidiol continues to increase but is not definitive. In light of increasing trends toward legalization of cannabis, the knowledge gained from this body of research needs to be incorporated into strategies to minimize harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Broyd
- School of Psychology and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong
| | - Hendrika H van Hell
- School of Psychology and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong
| | - Camilla Beale
- School of Psychology and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong
| | - Murat Yücel
- Brain and Mental Health Laboratory, Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nadia Solowij
- School of Psychology and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong.
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