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Deng L, Wu L, Gao R, Xu X, Chen C, Liu J. Non-Opioid Anesthetics Addiction: A Review of Current Situation and Mechanism. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1259. [PMID: 37759860 PMCID: PMC10526861 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug addiction is one of the major worldwide health problems, which will have serious adverse consequences on human health and significantly burden the social economy and public health. Drug abuse is more common in anesthesiologists than in the general population because of their easier access to controlled substances. Although opioids have been generally considered the most commonly abused drugs among anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists, the abuse of non-opioid anesthetics has been increasingly severe in recent years. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the clinical situation and potential molecular mechanisms of non-opioid anesthetics addiction. This review incorporates the clinical and biomolecular evidence supporting the abuse potential of non-opioid anesthetics and the foreseeable mechanism causing the non-opioid anesthetics addiction phenotypes, promoting a better understanding of its pathogenesis and helping to find effective preventive and curative strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyun Deng
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Lining Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Rui Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiaolin Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Chan Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jin Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; (L.D.); (L.W.); (R.G.); (X.X.); (J.L.)
- The Research Units of West China (2018RU012)-Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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Cardona-Acosta AM, Bolaños-Guzmán CA. Role of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway in the antidepressant effects of ketamine. Neuropharmacology 2023; 225:109374. [PMID: 36516891 PMCID: PMC9839658 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Depression is a complex and highly heterogeneous disorder which diagnosis is based on an exceedingly variable set of clinical symptoms. Current treatments focus almost exclusively on the manipulation of monoamine neurotransmitter systems, but despite considerable efforts, these remain inadequate for a significant proportion of those afflicted by the disorder. The emergence of racemic (R, S)-ketamine as a fast-acting antidepressant has provided an exciting new path for the study of major depressive disorder (MDD) and the search for better therapeutics for its treatment. Previous work suggested that ketamine's mechanism of action is primarily mediated via blockaded of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, however, this is an area of active research and clinical and preclinical evidence now indicate that ketamine acts on multiple systems. The last couple of decades have cemented the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway's involvement in the pathogenesis of MDD and related mood disorders. Exposure to negative stress dysregulates dopamine neuronal activity disrupting reward and motivational processes resulting in anhedonia (lack of pleasure), a hallmark symptom of depression. Although the mechanism(s) underlying ketamine's antidepressant activity continue to be elucidated, current evidence indicate that its therapeutic effects are mediated, at least in part, via long-lasting synaptic changes and subsequent molecular adaptations in brain regions within the mesolimbic dopamine system. Notwithstanding, ketamine is a drug of abuse, and this liability may pose limitations for long term use as an antidepressant. This review outlines the current knowledge of ketamine's actions within the mesolimbic dopamine system and its abuse potential. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'Ketamine and its Metabolites'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid M Cardona-Acosta
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Carlos A Bolaños-Guzmán
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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3
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Du H, Lai M, Zhuang D, Fu D, Zhou Y, Chen S, Wang F, Xu Z, Liu H, Wang Y, Xu P, Zhou W. A comparison of reinforcing effectiveness and drug-seeking reinstatement of 2-fluorodeschloroketamine and ketamine in self-administered rats. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:972798. [PMID: 36172262 PMCID: PMC9510746 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.972798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine (2F-DCK), a structural analog of ketamine, has been reported to cause impaired consciousness, agitation, and hallucination in abuse cases. It has similar reinforcing and discriminative effects as ketamine. However, the reinforcing efficacy and drug-seeking reinstatement of this analog have not been clarified to date. In this study, the effectiveness of 2F-DCK and ketamine was compared using a behavioral economics demand curve. The reinstatement of 2F-DCK- and ketamine-seeking behaviors induced by either conditioned cues or self-priming was also analyzed. Rats were intravenously self-administered 2F-DCK and ketamine at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion under a reinforcing schedule of fixed ratio 1 (FR1) with 4 h of daily training for at least 10 consecutive days. The elasticity coefficient parameter α and the essential value of the demand curve in the two groups were similar. Both groups of rats showed significant drug-seeking behavior induced either by conditional cues or by 2F-DCK and ketamine priming. Moreover, the α parameter was inversely related to the degree of reinstatement induced by cues or drug priming in both groups. In total, the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB) in the nucleus accumbens in both extinguished and reinstated rats were significantly lower than those in the control. The expression of total Akt, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) also decreased, but p-Akt, p-GSK-3β, p-mTOR, and p-ERK levels increased in both extinguished and reinstated rats. This is the first study to demonstrate that 2F-DCK has similar reinforcing efficacy, effectiveness, and post-withdrawal cravings as ketamine after repeated use. These data suggest that the downregulation of CREB/BDNF and the upregulation of the Akt/mTOR/GSK-3β signaling pathway in the nucleus accumbens may be involved in ketamine or 2F-DCK relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Du
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Miaojun Lai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Dingding Zhuang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Dan Fu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yiying Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Shanshan Chen
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Fangmin Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zemin Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Huifen Liu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Youmei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Peng Xu
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Addiction Research, Ningbo Kangning Hospital, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
- Wenhua Zhou
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Pharmacological inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 increases operant alcohol self-administration in a manner associated with altered pGSK-3β, protein interacting with C kinase and GluA2 protein expression in the reward pathway of male C57BL/6J mice. Behav Pharmacol 2020; 31:15-26. [PMID: 31503067 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is a constitutively active serine-threonine kinase that regulates numerous signaling pathways and has been implicated in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Alcohol exposure increases GSK-3β (ser9) phosphorylation (pGSK-3β); however, few studies have investigated whether GSK-3 regulates the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol, which drive repetitive drug use. To address this goal, male C57BL/6J mice were trained to lever press on a fixed-ratio 4 schedule of sweetened alcohol or sucrose-only reinforcement in operant conditioning chambers. The GSK-3 inhibitor CHIR 99021 (0-10 mg/kg, i.p.) was injected 45 minutes prior to self-administration sessions. After completion of the self-administration dose-effect curve, potential locomotor effects of the GSK-3 inhibitor were assessed. To determine molecular efficacy, CHIR 99021 (10 mg/kg, i.p.) was evaluated on pGSK-3β, GSK-3β, protein interacting with C kinase (PICK1), and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor GluA2 subunit protein expression in amygdala, nucleus accumbens (NAcb), and frontal cortex. Results showed that CHIR 99021 (10 mg/kg) dose-dependently increased alcohol reinforced responding with no effect on sucrose self-administration or locomotor activity. CHIR 99021 (10 mg/kg) significantly decreased pGSK-3β expression in all brain regions tested, reduced PICK1 and increased GluA2 total expression only in the NAcb. We conclude that GSK-3 inhibition increased the reinforcing effects of alcohol in mice. This was associated with reduced pGSK-3β and PICK1, and increased GluA2 expression. Given prior results showing that AMPA receptor activity regulates alcohol self-administration, we propose that signaling through the GSK-3/PICK1/GluA2 molecular pathway drives the positive reinforcing effects of the drug, which are required for abuse liability.
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Xu L, Nan J, Lan Y. The Nucleus Accumbens: A Common Target in the Comorbidity of Depression and Addiction. Front Neural Circuits 2020; 14:37. [PMID: 32694984 PMCID: PMC7338554 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2020.00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The comorbidity of depression and addiction has become a serious public health issue, and the relationship between these two disorders and their potential mechanisms has attracted extensive attention. Numerous studies have suggested that depression and addiction share common mechanisms and anatomical pathways. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) has long been considered a key brain region for regulating many behaviors, especially those related to depression and addiction. In this review article, we focus on the association between addiction and depression, highlighting the potential mediating role of the NAc in this comorbidity via the regulation of changes in the neural circuits and molecular signaling. To clarify the mechanisms underlying this association, we summarize evidence from overlapping reward neurocircuitry, the resemblance of cellular and molecular mechanisms, and common treatments. Understanding the interplay between these disorders should help guide clinical comorbidity prevention and the search for a new target for comorbidity treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Xu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University School of Medicine, Yanji City, China
| | - Jun Nan
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Yanbian University, Yanji City, China
| | - Yan Lan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University School of Medicine, Yanji City, China
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Sial OK, Parise EM, Parise LF, Gnecco T, Bolaños-Guzmán CA. Ketamine: The final frontier or another depressing end? Behav Brain Res 2020; 383:112508. [PMID: 32017978 PMCID: PMC7127859 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Two decades ago, the observation of a rapid and sustained antidepressant response after ketamine administration provided an exciting new avenue in the search for more effective therapeutics for the treatment of clinical depression. Research elucidating the mechanism(s) underlying ketamine's antidepressant properties has led to the development of several hypotheses, including that of disinhibition of excitatory glutamate neurons via blockade of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Although the prominent understanding has been that ketamine's mode of action is mediated solely via the NMDA receptor, this view has been challenged by reports implicating other glutamate receptors such as AMPA, and other neurotransmitter systems such as serotonin and opioids in the antidepressant response. The recent approval of esketamine (Spravato™) for the treatment of depression has sparked a resurgence of interest for a deeper understanding of the mechanism(s) underlying ketamine's actions and safe therapeutic use. This review aims to present our current knowledge on both NMDA and non-NMDA mechanisms implicated in ketamine's response, and addresses the controversy surrounding the antidepressant role and potency of its stereoisomers and metabolites. There is much that remains to be known about our understanding of ketamine's antidepressant properties; and although the arrival of esketamine has been received with great enthusiasm, it is now more important than ever that its mechanisms of action be fully delineated, and both the short- and long-term neurobiological/functional consequences of its treatment be thoroughly characterized.
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MESH Headings
- Antidepressive Agents/pharmacology
- Antidepressive Agents/therapeutic use
- Depressive Disorder, Major/drug therapy
- Depressive Disorder, Treatment-Resistant/drug therapy
- Dopamine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/drug effects
- Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists/pharmacology
- Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Humans
- Ketamine/pharmacology
- Ketamine/therapeutic use
- Norepinephrine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/drug effects
- Receptor, Muscarinic M1/drug effects
- Receptors, AMPA/drug effects
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/drug effects
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/drug effects
- Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT3/drug effects
- Receptors, sigma/drug effects
- Serotonin Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar K Sial
- Texas A&M University: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, 4325 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Eric M Parise
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lyonna F Parise
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Tamara Gnecco
- Texas A&M University: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, 4325 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Carlos A Bolaños-Guzmán
- Texas A&M University: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, 4325 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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Galvanho JP, Manhães AC, Carvalho-Nogueira ACC, Silva JDM, Filgueiras CC, Abreu-Villaça Y. Profiling of behavioral effects evoked by ketamine and the role of 5HT 2 and D 2 receptors in ketamine-induced locomotor sensitization in mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020; 97:109775. [PMID: 31676464 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ketamine has addictive potential, a troublesome fact due to its promising use as a therapeutic drug. An important phenomenon associated with drug addiction is behavioral sensitization, usually characterized as augmented locomotion. However, other behaviors may also be susceptible to sensitization, and/or interfere with locomotor activity. Thus, this study drew a comprehensive behavioral 'profiling' in an animal model of repeated administration of ketamine. Adult Swiss mice received single daily ketamine injections (30 or 50 mg/Kg, i.p.), which were followed by open field testing for 7 days (acquisition period, ACQ). A ketamine challenge (sensitization test, ST) was carried out after a 5-day withdrawal. Locomotion, rearing, grooming, rotation and falling were assessed during ACQ and ST. All behaviors were affected from the first ACQ day onwards, with no indication of competition between locomotion and the other behaviors. Only locomotion in response to 30 mg/Kg of ketamine both escalated during ACQ and expressed increased levels at ST, evidencing development and expression of locomotor sensitization. Considering the involvement of serotonin 5HT(2) and dopamine D(2) receptors on addiction mechanisms, we further tested the involvement of these receptors in ketamine-induced sensitization. Ketanserin (5HT2 antagonist, 3 mg/Kg, s.c.) prevented ketamine-evoked development of locomotor sensitization. However, ketanserin pretreatment during ACQ failed to inhibit its expression during ST. Raclopride (D2 antagonist, 0.5 mg/Kg, s.c.) evoked less robust reductions in locomotion but prevented the development of ketamine-evoked sensitization. Pretreatment during ACQ further inhibited the expression of sensitization during ST. These results indicate that a partial overlap in serotonergic and dopaminergic mechanisms underlies ketamine-induced locomotor sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jefferson P Galvanho
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil
| | - Alex C Manhães
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil.
| | - Ana Cristina C Carvalho-Nogueira
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil
| | - Joyce de M Silva
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil
| | - Claudio C Filgueiras
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil
| | - Yael Abreu-Villaça
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Centro Biomédico, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Av. Prof. Manuel de Abreu 444, 5 andar - Vila Isabel, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 20550-170, Brazil.
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Kokane SS, Armant RJ, Bolaños-Guzmán CA, Perrotti LI. Overlap in the neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms underlying ketamine abuse and its use as an antidepressant. Behav Brain Res 2020; 384:112548. [PMID: 32061748 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic and psychedelic compound, has revolutionized the field of psychopharmacology by showing robust, and rapid-acting antidepressant activity in patients suffering from major depressive disorder (MDD), suicidal tendencies, and treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Ketamine's efficacy, however, is transient, and patients must return to the clinic for repeated treatment as they experience relapse. This is cause for concern because ketamine is known for its abuse liability, and repeated exposure to drugs of abuse often leads to drug abuse/dependence. Though the mechanism(s) underlying its antidepressant activity is an area of current intense research, both clinical and preclinical evidence shows that ketamine's effects are mediated, at least in part, by molecular adaptations resulting in long-lasting synaptic changes in mesolimbic brain regions known to regulate natural and drug reward. This review outlines our limited knowledge of ketamine's neurobiological and biochemical underpinnings mediating its antidepressant effects and correlates them to its abuse potential. Depression and addiction share overlapping neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms, and though speculative, repeated use of ketamine for the treatment of depression could lead to the development of substance use disorder/addiction, and thus should be tempered with caution. There is much that remains to be known about the long-term effects of ketamine, and our lack of understanding of neurobiological mechanisms underlying its antidepressant effects is a clear limiting factor that needs to be addressed systematically before using repeated ketamine in the treatment of depressed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh S Kokane
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Arlington, United States
| | - Ross J Armant
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Arlington, United States
| | - Carlos A Bolaños-Guzmán
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, United States
| | - Linda I Perrotti
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Arlington, United States.
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Wanner NM, Colwell ML, Faulk C. The epigenetic legacy of illicit drugs: developmental exposures and late-life phenotypes. ENVIRONMENTAL EPIGENETICS 2019; 5:dvz022. [PMID: 31777665 PMCID: PMC6875650 DOI: 10.1093/eep/dvz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The effects of in utero exposure to illicit drugs on adult offspring are a significant and widespread but understudied global health concern, particularly in light of the growing opioid epidemic and emerging therapeutic uses for cannabis, ketamine, and MDMA. Epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and expression of non-coding RNAs provide a mechanistic link between the prenatal environment and health consequences years beyond the original exposure, and shifts in the epigenome present in early life or adolescence can lead to disease states only appearing during adulthood. The current review summarizes the literature assessing effects of perinatal illicit drug exposure on adult disease phenotypes as mediated by perturbations of the epigenome. Both behavioral and somatic phenotypes are included and studies reporting clinical data in adult offspring, epigenetic readouts in offspring of any age, or both phenotypic and epigenetic measures are prioritized. Studies of licit substances of abuse (i.e. alcohol, nicotine) are excluded with a focus on cannabis, psychostimulants, opioids, and psychedelics; current issues in the field and areas of interest for further investigation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Wanner
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, 1988 Fitch Ave, 495B AnSc/VetMed, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Mathia L Colwell
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Natural Resource Sciences, 1988 Fitch Ave, 495B AnSc/VetMed, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Christopher Faulk
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, 1988 Fitch Ave, 495B AnSc/VetMed, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Natural Resource Sciences, 1988 Fitch Ave, 495B AnSc/VetMed, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Zhang P, Pan J, Mao Z, Xu X, Lin D, Wu B, Zhou W, Liu Y. The effects of early exposure to MK-801 during environmental enrichment on spatial memory, methamphetamine self-administration and cue-induced renewal in rats. Behav Brain Res 2019; 363:83-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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11
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Wright KN, Hagarty DP, Strong CE, Schoepfer KJ, Kabbaj M. Sex-Dependent Ketamine Addiction-Like Behavior Profile Following Exposure to Chronic Mild Stress. CHRONIC STRESS 2019; 3. [PMID: 31187076 PMCID: PMC6559751 DOI: 10.1177/2470547019832613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Background Ketamine has rapid antidepressant effects and shows great promise as a novel
treatment for depression, but its limitations including its abuse potential
are poorly understood. Given that the prevalence of depression is twice as
high in women as in men and that depression and substance use disorders are
highly comorbid, we hypothesized that a sex-specific responsivity to
behavioral assays that characterize addiction-like behavior may arise in
rats with prior exposure to chronic stress and therapeutically relevant
ketamine. Methods Male and female rats that underwent chronic mild stress were treated with
four 1.47 mg/kg intravenous ketamine infusions once every fourth day and
underwent operant self-administration of 0.5 mg/kg/infusion ketamine.
Measures of anhedonia (or lack of pleasure, a signature feature of
depression), anxiety-induced neophagia, motivation to obtain ketamine, and
craving were assessed using the sucrose intake test, novelty-suppressed
feeding test, progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement, and incubation of
craving following abstinence, respectively. Finally, dendritic spine density
in the nucleus accumbens core was measured. Results Ketamine infusions reduced anxiety-induced neophagia in both male rats and
female rats but had no effect on measures of anhedonia. Female rats with
prior exposure to chronic mild stress had greater motivation to obtain
ketamine compared to nonstressed female rats, an effect not observed in male
rats. Additionally, female rats who received antidepressant ketamine
infusions had a higher threshold for displaying ketamine addiction-like
behavior than saline-treated female rats as well as increased thin spine
density in the nucleus accumbens core. These effects were not observed in
male rats. Conclusion This study shows that repeated low-dose ketamine does not increase abuse
potential of subsequent ketamine. It also highlights an important
female-specific effect of stress to increase ketamine addiction-like
behavior, which requires further investigation for clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine N Wright
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Devin P Hagarty
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Caroline E Strong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Kristin J Schoepfer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Mohamed Kabbaj
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
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12
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Kaufman MJ, Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Supraphysiologic-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid use: A risk factor for dementia? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 100:180-207. [PMID: 30817935 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Supraphysiologic-dose anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use is associated with physiologic, cognitive, and brain abnormalities similar to those found in people at risk for developing Alzheimer's Disease and its related dementias (AD/ADRD), which are associated with high brain β-amyloid (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau (tau-P) protein levels. Supraphysiologic-dose AAS induces androgen abnormalities and excess oxidative stress, which have been linked to increased and decreased expression or activity of proteins that synthesize and eliminate, respectively, Aβ and tau-P. Aβ and tau-P accumulation may begin soon after initiating supraphysiologic-dose AAS use, which typically occurs in the early 20s, and their accumulation may be accelerated by other psychoactive substance use, which is common among non-medical AAS users. Accordingly, the widespread use of supraphysiologic-dose AAS may increase the numbers of people who develop dementia. Early diagnosis and correction of sex-steroid level abnormalities and excess oxidative stress could attenuate risk for developing AD/ADRD in supraphysiologic-dose AAS users, in people with other substance use disorders, and in people with low sex-steroid levels or excess oxidative stress associated with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc J Kaufman
- McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Gen Kanayama
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - James I Hudson
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Harrison G Pope
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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13
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Evaluating the abuse potential of psychedelic drugs as part of the safety pharmacology assessment for medical use in humans. Neuropharmacology 2018; 142:89-115. [PMID: 29427652 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychedelics comprise drugs come from various pharmacological classes including 5-HT2A agonists, indirect 5-HT agonists, e.g., MDMA, NMDA antagonists and κ-opioid receptor agonists. There is resurgence in developing psychedelics to treat psychiatric disorders with high unmet clinical need. Many, but not all, psychedelics are schedule 1 controlled drugs (CDs), i.e., no approved medical use. For existing psychedelics in development, regulatory approval will require a move from schedule 1 to a CD schedule for drugs with medical use, i.e., schedules 2-5. Although abuse of the psychedelics is well documented, a systematic preclinical and clinical evaluation of the risks they pose in a medical-use setting does not exist. We describe the non-clinical tests required for a regulatory evaluation of abuse/dependence risks, i.e., drug-discrimination, intravenous self-administration and physical dependence liability. A synopsis of the existing data for the various types of psychedelics is provided and we describe our findings with psychedelic drugs in these models. FDA recently issued its guidance on abuse/dependence evaluation of drug-candidates (CDER/FDA, 2017). We critically review the guidance, discuss the impact this document will have on non-clinical abuse/dependence testing, and offer advice on how non-clinical abuse/dependence experiments can be designed to meet not only the expectations of FDA, but also other regulatory agencies. Finally, we offer views on how these non-clinical tests can be refined to provide more meaningful information to aid the assessment of the risks posed by CNS drug-candidates for abuse and physical dependence. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions'.
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14
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Zhang ZB, Xu TY, You DY, Yi S, Liu Q, Li HJ, Gu JY. The interactive effects of ketamine and ethanol on dopamine expression in the ventral tegmental area of rats. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2018; 14:2105-2114. [PMID: 30154658 PMCID: PMC6108338 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s163449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of studies have demonstrated the significant and rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine, which is also known as a neurotoxic and illicit drug. Ketamine and alcohol are increasingly used together in clubs by teenagers and young adults. Previous studies have proven that chronic ketamine consumption induces a delayed and persistent activation of the dopamine (DA) system. However, the rewarding properties of recreational ketamine abuse remain unclear, and the underlying mechanisms of the effects on the DA system after administration of ketamine with ethanol are yet to be explored. METHODS Here, we evaluated the effects of two different doses of ketamine (30 mg/kg and 60 mg/kg) with and without ethanol (0.3156 g/kg) on DA concentration in the rat's ventral tegmental area (VTA), a vital region in the reward and motivation system. We explored the effects of the combined drug treatment on the expression profiling of the DA metabolism genes, tyrosine hydroxylase, dopa decarboxylase, vesicular monoamine transporter 2, and synaptosomal-associated protein 25, as well as protein expression level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the rat's VTA. RESULTS We found that administration of ketamine with ethanol led to a significant increase of DA in the VTA associated with differential regulation of mRNA levels of the four DA metabolism genes and protein levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Moreover, the rewarding properties of coadministration of ketamine and ethanol were related to dopaminergic neuron activation in the VTA. CONCLUSION These results indicated the possibility that combined drug treatment might positively affect the mesencephalic DA reward system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Bi Zhang
- Biomedical Engineering Center, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian-Yong Xu
- Experiment Center for Medical Science Research, Kunming, People's Republic of China
| | - Ding-Yun You
- Department of Science and Technology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuai Yi
- School of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, People's Republic of China,
| | - Qing Liu
- School of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, People's Republic of China,
| | - Huifang-Jie Li
- School of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, People's Republic of China,
| | - Jin-Yun Gu
- Zhanyi Branch of Qujing Public Security Bureau, Qujing, People's Republic of China,
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15
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Figlewicz DP, Jay J, West CH, Zavosh A, Hampe CS, Radtke JR, Raskind MA, Peskind ER. Effect of dietary palmitic and stearic acids on sucrose motivation and hypothalamic and striatal cell signals in the rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2017; 314:R191-R200. [PMID: 29092861 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00340.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We have reported that motivation for sucrose is increased in rats fed a moderate (31%) mixed-fat diet for 4-6 wk. In this study, rats were fed diets containing 32% stearic (STEAR) or palmitic (PALM) acid, and behavior, metabolic profile, and cell signals were compared with those of rats fed a matched low-fat diet (LF; 11% fat) diet. Rats fed STEAR or PALM increased sucrose motivation relative to LF rats (one-way ANOVA for lever presses; P = 0.03). Diet did not change fasting glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, intravenous glucose tolerance test glucose profile, percent body fat, or total kilocalories, although kilocalories as fat were increased (ANOVA, P < 0.05). Cell signals were assessed in rats ranked from high to low sucrose motivation. Diet did not alter Thr and Ser phosphorylation of Akt in the medial hypothalamus (HYP) and striatum (STR). However, Ser phosphorylation of GSK3Β was decreased in HYP and STR from both high- and low-performer tertiles of STEAR and PALM rats (ANOVA within each brain region, P < 0.05). Two histone 3 (H3) modifications were also assessed. Although there was no effect of diet on the transcription-repressive H3 modification, H3K27me3, the transcription-permissive H3 modification, H3K4me3, was significantly decreased in the HYP of high performers fed PALM or STEAR (ANOVA, P = 0.013). There was no effect of diet on H3K4me3 levels in HYP of low performers, or in STR. Our findings suggest signal-specific and brain region-specific effects of PALM or STEAR diets and may link downstream signaling effects of GSK3Β activity and H3 modifications with enhanced motivational behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne P Figlewicz
- Research and Development Service, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington
| | - Jennifer Jay
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington
| | - Constance H West
- Research and Development Service, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington
| | - Aryana Zavosh
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington
| | - Christiane S Hampe
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington
| | - Jared R Radtke
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington
| | - Murray A Raskind
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington.,Veterans Affairs Northwest Network Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington
| | - Elaine R Peskind
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine , Seattle, Washington.,Veterans Affairs Northwest Network Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington
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16
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Wright KN, Strong CE, Addonizio MN, Brownstein NC, Kabbaj M. Reinforcing properties of an intermittent, low dose of ketamine in rats: effects of sex and cycle. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:393-401. [PMID: 27837330 PMCID: PMC5384643 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4470-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Repeated intermittent exposure to ketamine has rapid and long-lasting antidepressant effects, but the abuse potential has only been assessed at high doses. Furthermore, while females are more susceptible to depression and more sensitive to ketamine's antidepressant-like effects, the abuse potential for ketamine in females is unknown. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are to determine the reinforcing properties of low-dose intermittent ketamine in adult rats of both sexes and determine whether cycling gonadal hormones influence females' response to ketamine. In male rats, we also aimed to determine whether reinstatement to intermittent ketamine is comparable to intermittent cocaine. METHODS Male rats intravenously self-administered cocaine (0.75 mg/kg/infusion) or ketamine (0.1 mg/kg/infusion) once every fourth day, while intact cycling female rats self-administered ketamine only during preidentified stages of their 4-day estrus cycle, when gonadal hormones are either high (proestrus) or low (diestrus). After acquiring self-administration, rats underwent daily extinction training followed by cue-primed and drug-primed reinstatement to assess drug-seeking behavior. RESULTS Diestrus-trained females fail to maintain ketamine self-administration and did not display reinstatement to ketamine-paired cues. Males and proestrus-trained females reinstated to ketamine-paired cues. Ketamine-primed reinstatement was dependent on simultaneous cue presentation. Male rats reinstated to cocaine priming independent of cue presentation. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that females's responsivity to this dose of ketamine depends on stage of cycle, as only proestrus-trained females and males respond to ketamine's reinforcing effects under this treatment paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine N. Wright
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Caroline E. Strong
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Marjorie N. Addonizio
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Naomi C. Brownstein
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Social Medicine, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA,Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Mohamed Kabbaj
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA. .,College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University, 1115 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
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17
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Ketamine abuse potential and use disorder. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:68-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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18
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The ketamine-like compound methoxetamine substitutes for ketamine in the self-administration paradigm and enhances mesolimbic dopaminergic transmission. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:2241-51. [PMID: 27020786 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4275-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recently, an increasing number of emergency cases due to a novel ketamine-like drug, methoxetamine (MXE), were reported in several countries. However, very little is known about the neuropsychopharmacological and reinforcing profile of this compound. OBJECTIVES Our study aims to investigate the effects of MXE on self-administration (SA) behaviour in comparison to ketamine and on dopaminergic transmission. METHODS A SA substitution study was performed in male rats trained to intravenously (IV) self-administer ketamine. At responding stability, rats were exposed to sequential phases of MXE substitution at different dosages (starting from 0.5 and then decreasing to 0.25 and 0.125 mg/kg). Standard electrophysiological techniques were used to record changes in firing activities of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons projecting to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell after acute injection of cumulative doses of MXE (0.031-0.5 mg/kg IV). Finally, in vivo microdialysis was performed in freely moving rats to evaluate the effect of acute MXE administration (0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg IV) on dopamine release in the NAc shell. RESULTS MXE 0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg, but not 0.5 mg/kg, substituted for ketamine SA. MXE also induced a dose-dependent stimulation of firing rate (p < 0.0001) and burst firing (p < 0.05) of NAc-projecting VTA dopamine neurons. Consistently, MXE significantly (p < 0.05) increased dopamine extracellular levels in the NAc shell at 0.5 and 0.25 mg/kg with different time onsets, i.e. at 40 and 100 min, respectively. CONCLUSIONS This study, while confirming the reinforcing effects of MXE, highlights an electrophysiological and neurochemical profile predictive of its addictive properties.
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The modulation of BDNF expression and signalling dissects the antidepressant from the reinforcing properties of ketamine: Effects of single infusion vs. chronic self-administration in rats. Pharmacol Res 2015; 104:22-30. [PMID: 26706783 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ketamine is a drug of abuse with a unique profile, which besides its inherent mechanism of action as a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA glutamate receptor, displays both antidepressant and reinforcing properties. The major aim of our study was to find a molecular signature of ketamine that may help in discriminating between its reinforcing and antidepressant effects. To this end, we focused our attention on BDNF, a neurotrophin that has been shown to play a role in both antidepressant and reinforcing properties of several drugs. Rats were exposed to self-administer intravenous (IV) ketamine (S/A) for 43 days or to receive a single IV ketamine 0.5mg/kg, or vehicle infusion. Although the dose we employed is lower than that reported by the literature, it however yields Cmax values that correspond to those achieved in humans after antidepressant treatment. Our results show that while the single infusion of ketamine increased the neurotrophin expression in the hippocampus while reducing it in the ventral striatum, a feature shared with other antidepressants, the repeated self-administration reduced mBDNF expression and its downstream signalling in both ventral striatum and hippocampus. Further, we here show that phosphorylation of Akt is oppositely regulated by ketamine, pointing to this pathway as central to the different actions of the drug. Taken together, we here point to BDNF and its downstream signalling pathway as a finely tuned mechanism whose modulation might subserve the different features of ketamine.
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20
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Pharmacological and non-pharmacological factors that regulate the acquisition of ketamine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:4505-14. [PMID: 26387516 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4077-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recreational ketamine use may be modulated by factors such as ketamine infusion patterns, associated conditioned stimuli and spatial-temporal contexts. Our aim was to study the pharmacological and non-pharmacological factors that regulate the acquisition of ketamine use. METHODS In experiment 1, four groups of male rats were trained to self-administer ketamine during nine 1-h daily sessions, under four reinforcement schedules: i) pre-session ketamine priming (Priming-[KET]), ii) conditioned stimulus (CS) paired to the ketamine infusions ([KET + CS]), iii) neither priming nor CS ([KET]), iv) combination of both (Priming-[KET + CS]). In experiment 2, two groups of male rats were trained to self-administer ketamine during nine 1-h daily or weekly sessions, under the Priming-[KET + CS] schedule. Lever pressing was then extinguished by saline substitution for ketamine infusion. Afterwards, ketamine was made available again upon responding under the same schedule. RESULTS The Priming-[KET + CS] schedule of reinforcement showed a significant increase in the number of ketamine reinforcements and a significant discrimination between active vs. inactive levers. The same schedule allowed the establishment of ketamine self-administration on a weekly basis. During the extinction phase, rate of responding significantly dropped in both weekly and daily groups although it was twofold longer in the former, which showed a lack of reacquisition. CONCLUSIONS Both pre-session ketamine priming and a conditioned stimulus paired to the ketamine infusions are required for the acquisition of ketamine self-administration. The longer extinction and the lack of reacquisition in the weekly group could be due to changes in temporal context that might affect the conditioning process.
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