The impact of dietary restraint and moderate-intensity exercise on post-exercise energy intake in sedentary males

Cognitive restriction accentuates the increased energy intake response to a 10-month multidisciplinary weight loss program in adolescents with obesity

BACKGROUND

Multidisciplinary interventions have shown some merits in weight reduction strategies in youth, however, their impact on subsequent daily energy intake remains largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the nutritional responses to a 10-month multidisciplinary intervention among adolescents with obesity, in relation to their eating behavior characteristics.

METHODS

Thirty-five adolescents (mean age: 13.4 ± 1.2 years) with obesity took part in a 10-month residential multidisciplinary weight loss program. Anthropometric measurements, body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), 24-h ad libitum energy intake (weighted), eating behaviors (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire) and appetite sensations (Visual Analogue Scales) were assessed on three occasions: at their arrival in the institution (T0), after 5 months (T1), and at the end of the 10-month program (T2).

RESULTS

The mean weight loss reached 11% of the adolescents' initial body weight, with an important inter-individual variability (-25% to +3% of their initial body weight). Results revealed sex differences change, with boys showing a higher decrease in fat mass percent and increase in fat-free mass compared with girls. Weight loss was accompanied by a significant decrease in emotional (-8.3%, p < 0.05) and external (-14.8%, p < 0.001) eating scores and a significant increase in 24-h ad libitum energy intake (+246 kcal, p < 0.001). The observed subsequent increased 24-h ad libitum energy intake at T2 compared to T0 was significantly higher in cognitively restrained eaters (+492 kcal) compared to unrestrained eaters (+115 kcal, p = 0,015). Dietary restraint score at baseline was inversely correlated with the percentage of weight loss (r = -0.44, p = 0.010).

CONCLUSION

A 10-month multidisciplinary weight loss intervention induced an increase in 24-h ad libitum energy intake compared to baseline, especially in cognitively restrained eaters. Moreover, initially cognitively restrained eaters tended to lose less body weight compared to unrestrained ones. These findings suggest that cognitive restriction may be a useful eating behavior characteristic to consider as a screening tool for identifying adverse responders to weight loss interventions in youth.

The Development of a Novel Measure to Assess Motives for Compensatory Eating in Response to Exercise: The CEMQ

Compensatory eating in response to exercise may be an obstacle to achieving weight-loss and fitness goals. In this study we develop and conduct a preliminary examination of the psychometric properties of the Compensatory Eating Motives Questionnaire (CEMQ), a self-report questionnaire of motives for compensatory eating. Development and testing of the CEMQ was conducted in two student samples. Of respondents, 75% reported engaging in compensatory eating. Factor analysis yielded factors representing three domains of motives for compensatory eating: Eating for Reward, Eating for Recovery, and Eating for Relief. Internal consistency of the factors was adequate, and the factor structure was replicated. Correlations between the CEMQ subscales and trait questionnaires supported hypotheses for convergent and divergent validity. These results encourage further investigation of compensatory eating as a potential obstacle to weight loss, and support the continued assessment of the CEMQ as a tool to measure three conceptually distinct motives for compensatory eating.

Does increased exercise or physical activity alter ad-libitum daily energy intake or macronutrient composition in healthy adults? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The magnitude of the negative energy balance induced by exercise may be reduced due to compensatory increases in energy intake.

OBJECTIVE

TO ADDRESS THE QUESTION: Does increased exercise or physical activity alter ad-libitum daily energy intake or macronutrient composition in healthy adults?

DATA SOURCES

PubMed and Embase were searched (January 1990-January 2013) for studies that presented data on energy and/or macronutrient intake by level of exercise, physical activity or change in response to exercise. Ninety-nine articles (103 studies) were included.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Primary source articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals. Articles that presented data on energy and/or macronutrient intake by level of exercise or physical activity or changes in energy or macronutrient intake in response to acute exercise or exercise training in healthy (non-athlete) adults (mean age 18-64 years).

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

Articles were grouped by study design: cross-sectional, acute/short term, non-randomized, and randomized trials. Considerable heterogeneity existed within study groups for several important study parameters, therefore a meta-analysis was considered inappropriate. Results were synthesized and presented by study design.

RESULTS

No effect of physical activity, exercise or exercise training on energy intake was shown in 59% of cross-sectional studies (n = 17), 69% of acute (n = 40), 50% of short-term (n = 10), 92% of non-randomized (n = 12) and 75% of randomized trials (n = 24). Ninety-four percent of acute, 57% of short-term, 100% of non-randomized and 74% of randomized trials found no effect of exercise on macronutrient intake. Forty-six percent of cross-sectional trials found lower fat intake with increased physical activity.

LIMITATIONS

The literature is limited by the lack of adequately powered trials of sufficient duration, which have prescribed and measured exercise energy expenditure, or employed adequate assessment methods for energy and macronutrient intake.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no consistent evidence that increased physical activity or exercise effects energy or macronutrient intake.

Energy compensation after an aerobic exercise session in high-fat/low-fit and low-fat/high-fit young male subjects

There is general agreement that exercise-induced energy expenditure is not entirely compensated for at the next meal or over the following 24 h, but inter-individual variability is high. The role of ‘fatness and fitness’ in this variability has never been assessed. Therefore, eighteen non-obese male subjects aged 22·2 (sd2·0) years were selected and separated into a ‘high-fatness and low-fitness’ (Hfat/Lfit,n9) and a ‘low-fatness and high-fitness’ (Lfat/Hfit,n9) group, according to three criteria: maximal oxygen uptake; weekly hours of physical activity; fat mass index. At 1 h before lunch, they were subjected to 60 min of exercise on a cycle ergometer (70 % VO2max), or stayed at rest. Then, they self-reported food intake in diaries until the next breakfast. Intake at lunch was not different between conditions, but was higher after exercise than after rest over the 24 h, leading to a significant but partial mean level of compensation of 49·8 (sem16·5) and 37·8 (sem24·6) % for the Hfat/Lfit and Lfat/Hfit groups, respectively. Energy compensation at lunch and over the 24 h were strongly correlated (r0·76,P< 0·001). Both groups consumed more fat and protein after exercise than after rest over the 24 h, but the percentage of energy derived from fat increased only in the Hfat/Lfit group (2·1 (sem0·6) %,P= 0·026). Thus, the energy cost of an aerobic exercise session was partially compensated over the next 24 h independently of the ‘fatness and fitness’ status, but ‘high-fat and low-fit’ individuals compensated more specifically on fats.

The Interaction Between Exercise, Appetite, and Food Intake

Exercise could indirectly affect body weight by exerting changes on various components of appetite control, including nutrient and taste preferences, meal size and frequency, and the drive to eat. This review summarizes the evidence on how exercise affects appetite and eating behavior and in particular answers the question, “Does exercise induce an increase in food intake to compensate for the increase in energy expenditure?” Evidence will be presented to demonstrate that there is no automatic increase in food intake in response to acute exercise and that the response to repeated exercise is variable. The review will also identify areas of further study required to explain the variability. One limitation with studies that assess the efficacy of exercise as a method of weight control is that only mean data are presented—the individual variability tends to be overlooked. Recent evidence highlights the importance of characterizing the individual variability by demonstrating exercise-induced changes in appetite. Individuals who experience lower than theoretically predicted reductions in body weight can be characterized by hedonic (eg, pleasure) and homeostatic (eg, hunger) features.

Using a novel computer-based approach to assess the acute effects of exercise on appetite-related measures

Measuring food intake using standard buffet meals can be complicated by sensory and external cues which can alter energy intake. The present study was designed to examine the effects of acute exercise on non-metabolic factors related to appetite and food intake using a computer-based assessment. Twenty-seven men and women participated in two sessions in random order: 60-min walking on the treadmill (exercise trial; EX) or seated rest (control trial; CON). Subjective hunger and fullness, food liking, food utility, and ideal portion size were assessed before and immediately after exercise or rest, and hourly for 2 h. The findings showed that an acute bout of moderate intensity exercise had an anorexigenic effect; characterised by diminished hunger (-17.4%, p=0.004) and lower prospective ideal portion size (-7.7%, p=0.003) compared to no exercise. This novel, computer-based assessment, is a useful alternative to buffet meals setting and allows for the determination of non-metabolic factors associated with feeding behaviour in relation to exercise.